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A Grammar of Osqud

Introduction

Scope and Purpose

This grammar provides a systematic description of the Osqud language (the 887th one produced by the Language Creator), outlining its sound system, word formation and syntactic structure, with the aim of presenting a coherent account of the language as an integrated whole. Attention has been paid to both regular patterns and minor irregularities, as these together define the internal balance of the language.

The grammar is accompanied by a bilingual dictionary and a collection of illustrative texts, offering material for further study and comparison. The examples have been selected to demonstrate typical constructions and to give a sense of the language in extended use. The description is intended as a reference work for linguists and language enthusiasts alike, and as a foundation for any future research, teaching or creative adaptation of Osqud.

Typological Profile

It has has no interesting typological features.

Phonology

Phoneme Inventory

Consonants

Osqud has a large consonant inventory, comprising 38 phonemes.

It has a highly developed aspirated consonant series, a notable dental–alveolar contrast across several manners, a notably rich set of sibilant contrasts, a system with marginal but genuine retroflex contrasts and a broad and varied fricative inventory.

The table below presents the full inventory of consonant phonemes in Osqud. The chart lists all places and manners of articulation attested in the language.

labialdentalalveolarpostalveolaralveolo-palatallateralpalatalretroflexvelaruvularglottal
stopp b d t ɖ ʈ k ɡ q ʔ
aspirated stoppʰ tʰ ʈʰ kʰ
nasalm n n̥ ɲ ɳ ɳ̥ ŋ ŋ̥
trill/tap/flapr ɽ
fricativef θ s ʃ ʂ x h
approximantw ɹ l j
affricatet͡ʃ t͡ɕ

Vowels

Osqud has 7 vowel qualities, forming a relatively large inventory. The system distinguishes several vowel categories, as indicated in the chart, offering a wide range of vocalic contrasts.

It has a moderately reduced system of unstressed vowels.

The table below presents the full inventory of vowel phonemes in Osqud. The system comprises the distinct vowel qualities listed in the chart.

frontcentralback
closei u
mide o
opena

Stress and Tones

Osqud has phonemic stress but no lexical tone. Stress consistently falls on the first vowel of the root, and no contrastive tonal distinctions are made.

Phonological Processes

Vowel Harmony

Vowel harmony does not exist in this language.

Writing System

Introduction

Osqud is normally written using the Latin alphabet, whose familiarity makes it straightforward for most readers. For clarity and precision, phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are also provided throughout this grammar.

Orthography

Here are the various components of the orthography:

Simple letters

a /a/b /b/d /d/e /e/
f /f/g /ɡ/h /h/i /i/
j /j/k /k/l /l/m /m/
n /n/o /o/p /p/q /q/
r /r/s /s/t /t/u /u/
w /w/x /x/z /θ/ñ /ɲ/
ŋ̥ /ŋ̥/ɳ̥ /ɳ̥/ɹ /ɹ/

Multi-letter combinations such as digraphs

aa /aː/ai /ai/au /au/
ch /t͡ʃ/ee /eː/ii /iː/
kh /kʰ/ng /ŋ/nh /n̥/
oo /oː/ph /pʰ/rd /ɖ/
rn /ɳ/rr /ɽ/rs /ʂ/
rt /ʈ/rth /ʈʰ/sh /ʃ/
th /tʰ/ty /t͡ɕ/uu /uː/
’ /ʔ/

Word Classes and Morphology

Number and Gender

Number

Osqud does not have grammatical number.

Gender

Osqud does not have genders or noun classes.

The Nominal Phrase

Nominal phrases in Osqud can be exemplified by the following example:

Jaap khaam wingob jaap khursi’ xahix goch shars ñuw huspa’i.

[ˈjaːp ˈkʰaːm wiˈŋob ˈjaːp ˈkʰuʂiʔ ˈxahix ˈɡot͡ʃ ˈʃaʂ ˈɲuw ˈhuspaʔi]

ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈaːm
woman wiˈŋob
COMIT ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈuʂiʔ
knife ˈxa
catch -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈɡo
yon -t͡ʃ
plur ˈʃaʂ
three ˈɲuw
blind h-
ACC ˈuspaʔi
mouse

“The woman with the knife caught those three blind mice.”

 (1)

In the following, we shall look at the various components in more details.

There are no clitics in the nominal phrase.

The Noun

The noun in Osqud consists of an obligatory prefix expressing case, comprising kh- /kʰ-/ ‘NOM’, h- /h-/ ‘ACC’, b- /b-/ ‘DAT’, m- /m-/ ‘INS’, l- /l-/ ‘VOC’, k- /k-/ ‘ALL’, p- /p-/ ‘LOC’, th- /tʰ-/ ‘ABL’ and r- /r-/ ‘PART’ followed by the root.

The noun displays the following derivational morphology: two suffixes, namely -hu /-hu/ ‘little’ and -li /-li/ ‘big’

The Adjective

The adjective in Osqud stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Numerals

The numeral in Osqud stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Determiners

In Osqud, the determiner has the following structure: the root followed by an obligatory suffix expressing number, comprising -p /-p/ ‘sing’ and -ch /-t͡ʃ/ ‘plur’.

Pronouns

The pronoun in Osqud stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

In Osqud, subject pronouns (but not object pronouns ones) are dropped unless they are stressed. Here is an example where neither of the pronouns are stressed:

Nairnix chaf.

[ˈnaiɳix ˈt͡ʃaf]

ˈnai
love -ɳ
PRES -ix
indicative ˈt͡ʃaf
3.sing

“He (the boy) loves her (the girl).”

 (2)

But here, the word corresponding to he (i.e., the subject) is stressed:

Chaf nairnix chaf.

[ˈt͡ʃaf ˈnaiɳix ˈt͡ʃaf]

ˈt͡ʃaf
3.sing ˈnai
love -ɳ
PRES -ix
indicative ˈt͡ʃaf
3.sing

“He loves her.”

 (3)

Proper Nouns

Jaap khUrsizang barnirnix jaap hI’unhir.

[ˈjaːp ˈkʰuʂiθaŋ baˈɳiɳix ˈjaːp ˈhiʔun̥ir]

ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈuʂiθaŋ
Ushithang baˈɳi
hate -ɳ
PRES -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -p
sing h-
ACC ˈiʔun̥ir
Iunir

“Ushithang hates Iunir.”

 (4)

Possession

jaap khub jaap khaungityird

[ˈjaːp ˈkʰub ˈjaːp ˈkʰauŋit͡ɕiɖ]

ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈub
boy ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈauŋit͡ɕiɖ
apple

“the boy’s apple”

 (5)
chaf jaap khaungityird

[ˈt͡ʃaf ˈjaːp ˈkʰauŋit͡ɕiɖ]

ˈt͡ʃaf
3.sing ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈauŋit͡ɕiɖ
apple

“his (the boy’s) apple”

 (6)
ɳ̥uq jaap khaungityird

[ˈɳ̥uq ˈjaːp ˈkʰauŋit͡ɕiɖ]

ˈɳ̥uq
1excl.sing ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈauŋit͡ɕiɖ
apple

“my apple”

 (7)
Jaap kheesqijung jaap khash rdarihix tirt jaap kherrigiw jaap hil.

[ˈjaːp ˈkʰeːsqijuŋ ˈjaːp ˈkʰaʃ ɖaˈrihix ˈtiʈ ˈjaːp ˈkʰeɽiɡiw ˈjaːp ˈhil]

ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈeːsqijuŋ
hunter ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈaʃ
daughter ɖaˈri
kiss -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈtiʈ
2.sing ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈeɽiɡiw
neighbour ˈjaː
the -p
sing h-
ACC ˈil
son

“The hunter’s daughter kissed your neighbour’s son.”

 (8)

Derivation

Osqud has a few derivational processes. To illustrate this, let us start with a simple noun phrase:

khirniɹum

[ˈkʰiɳiɹum]

kʰ-
NOM ˈiɳiɹum
lamb

“a lamb”

 (9)

In the following, the word for little becomes an affix attached to lamb:

khirniɹumhu

[ˈkʰiɳiɹumhu]

kʰ-
NOM ˈiɳiɹum
lamb -hu
little

“a little lamb”

 (10)

Compounding

Verbs

Inflectional Categories

There is one type of clitic in the verbal phrase, namely a proclitic (placed initially), expressing voice. a clitic expressing voice, comprising ŋ̥a’ /ŋ̥aʔ/ ‘passive’.

In addition, the verb is structured like this: first, the root; second, an obligatory suffix expressing ta, comprising -rn /-ɳ/ ‘PRES’ and -h /-h/ ‘PAST’; third, an obligatory suffix expressing mode, comprising -ix /-ix/ ‘indicative’, -ul /-ul/ ‘imperative’, -ab /-ab/ ‘conditional’ and -ing /-iŋ/ ‘optative’; fourth, an optional suffix expressing negation, comprising -ij /-ij/ ‘NEG’; and finally, fifth, an optional suffix expressing question, comprising -uq /-uq/ ‘Q’.

The verb displays the following derivational morphology: two suffixes, namely -chu /-t͡ʃu/ ‘begin’ and -rsi /-ʂi/ ‘stop’

Nairnix tirt.

[ˈnaiɳix ˈtiʈ]

ˈnai
love -ɳ
PRES -ix
indicative ˈtiʈ
2.sing

“I love you.”

 (11)

Adverbs Minor Classes

Adpositions

There is one type of clitic in the adpositional phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing root.

haas jaap khityap

[ˈhaːs ˈjaːp ˈkʰit͡ɕap]

ˈhaːs
in_surface ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈit͡ɕap
table

“on the table”

 (12)
diis jaap khalaxirn

[ˈdiːs ˈjaːp ˈkʰalaxiɳ]

ˈdiːs
to_inside ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈalaxiɳ
box

“into the box”

 (13)
wingob ɳ̥uq

[wiˈŋob ˈɳ̥uq]

wiˈŋob
COMIT ˈɳ̥uq
1excl.sing

“with me”

 (14)

Syntax

Basic Clause Structure

Constituent Order

Constituent order describes the typical arrangement of the subject (S), verb (V) and object (O) in simple declarative clauses. It is a fundamental parameter in grammatical description and forms one of the clearest ways of characterising the overall structure of a language’s clause system.

Osqud employs Subject–Verb–Object (SVO) as its basic word order. The subject is followed by the verb, with the object occurring in post-verbal position. This ordering is widely attested across the world’s languages.

The following examples illustrate the basic, unmarked, constituent order in Osqud.

Jaap khaibukhim ’oohix jaap heesqijung.

[ˈjaːp ˈkʰaibukʰim ˈʔoːhix ˈjaːp ˈheːsqijuŋ]

ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈaibukʰim
jaguar ˈʔoː
kill -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -p
sing h-
ACC ˈeːsqijuŋ
hunter

“The jaguar killed the hunter.”

 (15)
Jaap khoornirnaj phuuhix jaap kheesqijung jaap khash jaap haiz.

[ˈjaːp ˈkʰoːɳiɳaj ˈpʰuːhix ˈjaːp ˈkʰeːsqijuŋ ˈjaːp ˈkʰaʃ ˈjaːp ˈhaiθ]

ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈoːɳiɳaj
lion ˈpʰuː
eat -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈeːsqijuŋ
hunter ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈaʃ
daughter ˈjaː
the -p
sing h-
ACC ˈaiθ
dog

“The lion ate the hunter’s daughter’s dog.”

 (16)

The language has a fixed constituent order, and major phrases normally appear in a predictable position in the clause. Movement for discourse reasons is highly restricted: topics and foci are expressed not by rearranging elements, but through dedicated constructions such as clefts, focus clauses or topic–comment frames. Constituents remain continuous, and both the relative order of phrases and the internal structure of each phrase are stable. As a result, significant deviations from the basic word order are ungrammatical, and discourse structure is managed through these specialised constructions rather than through word-order variation.

Noun Phrases

Structure and Order

The internal structure of noun phrases in Osqud reveals typologically significant preferences in the ordering of nominal constituents. This includes the position of adjectives, numerals, and possessors relative to the noun, each of which can offer clues to the overall headedness of the language.

Possessive constructions are head-final: the possessor precedes the possessed noun. For example, Osqud expresses “the child’s toy” with the equivalent of “child toy”. This ordering is found in many SOV and postpositional languages and aligns with a broader tendency towards modifier-first structures.

tirt jaap khil jaap kheesh jaap kheebuk

[ˈtiʈ ˈjaːp ˈkʰil ˈjaːp ˈkʰeːʃ ˈjaːp kʰeːbuk]

ˈtiʈ
2.sing ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈil
son ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈeːʃ
friend ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM eːbuk
book

“your son’s friend’s book”

 (17)

Case Marking

Osqud uses nominative–accusative case marking. The subject of an intransitive verb and the subject of a transitive verb are treated alike and take the nominative case, while the object of a transitive verb is marked with the accusative case. This is the familiar pattern from many European languages: the grammar groups together the participants that function as subjects and marks the participant affected by a transitive action separately.

Jaap kherd xairnix.

[ˈjaːp ˈkʰeɖ ˈxaiɳix]

ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈeɖ
cat ˈxai
sleep -ɳ
PRES -ix
indicative

“The cat is sleeping.”

 (18)
Jaap kherd sarnix.

[ˈjaːp ˈkʰeɖ ˈsaɳix]

ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈeɖ
cat ˈsa
run -ɳ
PRES -ix
indicative

“The cat is running.”

 (19)
Jaap kherd phumarnix jaap huspa’i.

[ˈjaːp ˈkʰeɖ pʰuˈmaɳix ˈjaːp ˈhuspaʔi]

ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈeɖ
cat pʰuˈma
chase -ɳ
PRES -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -p
sing h-
ACC ˈuspaʔi
mouse

“The cat is chasing the mouse.”

 (20)
Jaap kherd xahix jaap huspa’i.

[ˈjaːp ˈkʰeɖ ˈxahix ˈjaːp ˈhuspaʔi]

ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈeɖ
cat ˈxa
catch -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -p
sing h-
ACC ˈuspaʔi
mouse

“The cat caught the mouse.”

 (21)

Conjunctions

Here is an example of a conjunction.

Jaap kheesqijung ’oohix jaach haibukhim ɳ̥ik jaach haithaqiw ɳ̥ik jaach hoornirnaj.

[ˈjaːp ˈkʰeːsqijuŋ ˈʔoːhix ˈjaːt͡ʃ ˈhaibukʰim ˈɳ̥ik ˈjaːt͡ʃ ˈhaitʰaqiw ˈɳ̥ik ˈjaːt͡ʃ ˈhoːɳiɳaj]

ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈeːsqijuŋ
hunter ˈʔoː
kill -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -t͡ʃ
plur h-
ACC ˈaibukʰim
jaguar ˈɳ̥ik
and ˈjaː
the -t͡ʃ
plur h-
ACC ˈaitʰaqiw
tiger ˈɳ̥ik
and ˈjaː
the -t͡ʃ
plur h-
ACC ˈoːɳiɳaj
lion

“The hunter killed the jaguars, the tigers and the lions.”

 (22)

Modifiers and Determiners

The ordering of demonstratives, articles (if present), and other modifiers in Osqud provides further insight into the structure of the noun phrase. These elements frequently exhibit fixed positions and may reveal whether the language favours head-initial or head-final patterns.

Complex Sentences

Relative Clauses

Osqud forms relative clauses by placing the relative clause after the noun it modifies. The clause follows the internal word order of ordinary finite clauses. A dedicated relativising marker introduces the clause and identifies the relationship between the head noun and its role inside the relative clause.

To illustrate how relative clauses work, let us begin with a simple sentence:

’ityahix jaap herd.

[ʔiˈt͡ɕahix ˈjaːp ˈheɖ]

ʔiˈt͡ɕa
pat -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -p
sing h-
ACC ˈeɖ
cat

“I patted the cat.”

 (23)

We can now add a relative clause modifying the noun:

’ityahix jaap kherd, goh xahix jaap huspa’i.

[ʔiˈt͡ɕahix ˈjaːp ˈkʰeɖ, ˈɡoh ˈxahix ˈjaːp ˈhuspaʔi]

ʔiˈt͡ɕa
pat -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈeɖ
cat ˈɡoh
RELPRON ˈxa
catch -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -p
sing h-
ACC ˈuspaʔi
mouse

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse.”

 (24)

Relative clauses may themselves contain other relative clauses:

’ityahix jaap kherd, goh xahix jaap khuspa’i, goh phuuhix jaap hejarsum.

[ʔiˈt͡ɕahix ˈjaːp ˈkʰeɖ, ˈɡoh ˈxahix ˈjaːp ˈkʰuspaʔi, ˈɡoh ˈpʰuːhix ˈjaːp ˈhejaʂum]

ʔiˈt͡ɕa
pat -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈeɖ
cat ˈɡoh
RELPRON ˈxa
catch -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈuspaʔi
mouse ˈɡoh
RELPRON ˈpʰuː
eat -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -p
sing h-
ACC ˈejaʂum
cheese

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese.”

 (25)

Finally, here is an example containing several layers of embedding:

’ityahix jaap kherd, goh xahix jaap khuspa’i, goh phuuhix jaap khejarsum, goh ’ohix ɳ̥uq.

[ʔiˈt͡ɕahix ˈjaːp ˈkʰeɖ, ˈɡoh ˈxahix ˈjaːp ˈkʰuspaʔi, ˈɡoh ˈpʰuːhix ˈjaːp ˈkʰejaʂum, ˈɡoh ˈʔohix ˈɳ̥uq]

ʔiˈt͡ɕa
pat -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈeɖ
cat ˈɡoh
RELPRON ˈxa
catch -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈuspaʔi
mouse ˈɡoh
RELPRON ˈpʰuː
eat -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈejaʂum
cheese ˈɡoh
RELPRON ˈʔo
buy -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈɳ̥uq
1excl.sing

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese that I bought.”

 (26)

Complementation Strategies

Osqud introduces complement clauses with a dedicated complementiser, similar to English that. The complementiser appears at the beginning of the embedded clause and signals that the clause functions as a syntactic argument. The embedded clause is fully finite and displays the same tense, aspect and agreement patterns as independent clauses.

The following example illustrate how complement clauses function:

Jaap khub pahix jaap boty haungityird nakirr mawahix jaap beedichil.

[ˈjaːp ˈkʰub ˈpahix ˈjaːp ˈbot͡ɕ ˈhauŋit͡ɕiɖ naˈkiɽ maˈwahix ˈjaːp beːdit͡ʃil]

ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈub
boy ˈpa
give -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -p
sing b-
DAT ˈot͡ɕ
girl h-
ACC ˈauŋit͡ɕiɖ
apple naˈkiɽ
COMP maˈwa
surprise -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -p
sing b-
DAT eːdit͡ʃil
teacher

“It surprised the teacher that the boy had given the girl an apple.”

 (27)

Quotes

Osqud expresses quoted or reported speech without a dedicated quotative particle. Quotations appear as ordinary clauses, distinguished only by the surrounding syntactic context or by the use of verbs of speaking.

Here is an example of how quotations are expressed:

Jaap khub ɹauhix jaap boty ɳ̥uq nairnix tirt nakirr.

[ˈjaːp ˈkʰub ˈɹauhix ˈjaːp ˈbot͡ɕ ˈɳ̥uq ˈnaiɳix ˈtiʈ naˈkiɽ]

ˈjaː
the -p
sing kʰ-
NOM ˈub
boy ˈɹau
tell -h
PAST -ix
indicative ˈjaː
the -p
sing b-
DAT ˈot͡ɕ
girl ˈɳ̥uq
1excl.sing ˈnai
love -ɳ
PRES -ix
indicative ˈtiʈ
2.sing naˈkiɽ
COMP

“The boy told the girl that he loved her.”

 (28)

How to cite this grammar

Language Creator. 2026. A Grammar of Osqud. Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 15 July 2026. https://languagecreator.org/grammar/08BN9

In BibTeX format:

@misc{LC-08BN9,
  year         = 2026,
  author       = {{Language Creator}},
  title        = {A Grammar of {Osqud}},
  howpublished = {\url{https://languagecreator.org/grammar/08BN9}},
  note         = {Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 15 July 2026}
}

Supplementary Materials

A collection of illustrative texts and a bilingual dictionary (English–Osqud / Osqud–English) accompany this grammar. The complete work – comprising the grammar, dictionary and texts – may also be downloaded in ODT or DOCX format.

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https://languagecreator.org/grammar/08BN9

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