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A Grammar of Har

Introduction

Scope and Purpose

This grammar provides a systematic description of the Har language (the 1266th one produced by the Language Creator), outlining its sound system, word formation and syntactic structure, with the aim of presenting a coherent account of the language as an integrated whole. Attention has been paid to both regular patterns and minor irregularities, as these together define the internal balance of the language.

The grammar is accompanied by a bilingual dictionary and a collection of illustrative texts, offering material for further study and comparison. The examples have been selected to demonstrate typical constructions and to give a sense of the language in extended use. The description is intended as a reference work for linguists and language enthusiasts alike, and as a foundation for any future research, teaching or creative adaptation of Har.

Typological Profile

It has a small but genuine set of click consonants.

Phonology

Phoneme Inventory

Consonants

Har has a large consonant inventory, comprising 49 phonemes.

It has an extensive and fully contrastive palatal series, an exceptionally large and contrastive set of fricatives, a maximally contrastive voicing system, an extensive set of dental articulations and a strongly reduced sibilant system.

The table below presents the full inventory of consonant phonemes in Har. The chart lists all places and manners of articulation attested in the language.

vel. labialpal. labialvel. dentalpal. dentalvel. alveolarpal. alveolarpostalveolarvel. lateralpal. lateralpalatalvel. velarpal. velarvel. uvularpal. uvularglottal
stoppˠ bˠ pʲ bʲ dˠ tˠ dʲ tʲ kˠ ɡˠ kʲ ɡʲ ʔ
nasalmˠ mʲ nˠ nʲ ŋˠ ŋʲ
fricativeɸˠ ɸʲ ðˠ θˠ ðʲ θʲ sˠ zˠ sʲ zʲ xˠ ɣˠ xʲ ɣʲ ʁˠ ʁʲ h
approximantwˠ wʲ ɾˠ ɾʲ j
affricatet͡ʃ
clickᵏǀˠ ᵏǀʲ
click, nasalᵑǀˠ ᵑǀʲ

Vowels

Har has 7 vowel qualities, forming a relatively large inventory. The system distinguishes several vowel categories, as indicated in the chart, offering a wide range of vocalic contrasts.

It has has a completely boring and uninteresting vowel system.

The table below presents the full inventory of vowel phonemes in Har. The system comprises the distinct vowel qualities listed in the chart.

frontcentralback
closei u
mide o
opena

Stress and Tones

Har has phonemic stress but no lexical tone. Stress consistently falls on the first vowel of the root, and no contrastive tonal distinctions are made.

Phonological Processes

Vowel Harmony

Vowel harmony does not exist in this language.

Writing System

Introduction

Har is normally written using the Cyrillic alphabet, a script with a long and varied history across Eastern Europe and northern Asia. In this grammar, phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are also used to give an unambiguous representation of sound.

The conventions adopted here follow standard Cyrillic practice for the language where that exists; where they do not, the IPA transcription should be taken as authoritative.

Orthography

Here are the various components of the orthography:

Simple letters

а /ˠa/б /b/в /w/г /h/
д /d/е /ʲe/з /z/и /ʲi/
к /k/м /m/н /n/о /ˠo/
п /p/р /ɾ/с /s/т /t/
у /ˠu/ф /f, ɸ/х /x/ч /t͡ʃ/
ъ /ˠ/ы /ˠi/ь /ʲ/э /ˠe/
ю /ʲu/я /ʲa/ё /ʲo/ј /j/
ѳ /θ/ґ /ɡ/ғ /ɣ/ҙ /ð/
ӈ /ŋ/ӏ /ʔ/ӷ /ʁ/

Multi-letter combinations such as digraphs

ай /ai/аў /au/ҁн /ᵑǀ/
ҁт /ᵏǀ/

Word Classes and Morphology

Number and Gender

Number

Har does not have grammatical number.

Gender

Har does not have genders or noun classes.

The Nominal Phrase

Nominal phrases in Har can be exemplified by the following example:

Быкочoдь нюнэг быґисодь дёкь бакь дыӈь мёѳъ быкисъпесьтуг ванъ.

[bˠiˈkˠot͡ʃodʲ nʲuˈnˠeh bˠiˈɡʲisˠodʲ ˈdʲokʲ bˠakʲ ˈdˠiŋʲ ˈmʲoθˠ bˠikʲiˈsˠpʲesʲtˠuh ˈwˠanˠ]

bˠi-
def ˈkˠot͡ʃ
woman -odʲ
sing nʲuˈnˠeh
COMIT bˠi-
def ˈɡʲisˠ
knife -odʲ
sing ˈdʲokʲ
catch bˠakʲ
PAST ˈdˠiŋʲ
yon ˈmʲoθˠ
blind bˠi-
def kʲiˈsˠpʲesʲtˠ
mouse -uh
plur wˠ-
NOM ˈanˠ
three

“The woman with the knife caught those three blind mice.”

 (1)

In the following, we shall look at the various components in more details.

There are no clitics in the nominal phrase.

The Noun

The noun in Har consists of first, an optional prefix expressing def, comprising бы- /bˠi-/ ‘def’; second, the root; and finally, third, an obligatory suffix expressing number, comprising -oдь /-odʲ/ ‘sing’ and -uг /-uh/ ‘plur’.

The noun displays the following derivational morphology: two suffixes, namely -oвъ /-owˠ/ ‘little’ and -iӷь /-iʁʲ/ ‘big’

The Adjective

The adjective in Har stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Numerals

The morphology of the numerals is as follows: an obligatory prefix expressing case, comprising въ- /wˠ-/ ‘NOM’, вь- /wʲ-/ ‘GEN’, фъ- /fˠ-/ ‘DAT’, ғь- /ɣʲ-/ ‘INS’, сь- /sʲ-/ ‘VOC’, ӈь- /ŋʲ-/ ‘ALL’, ґь- /ɡʲ-/ ‘LOC’, съ- /sˠ-/ ‘ABL’ and дь- /dʲ-/ ‘PART’ followed by the root.

Determiners

The determiner in Har stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Pronouns

The pronoun in Har stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

In Har, both subject and object pronouns are dropped unless they are stressed. Here is an example where neither of the pronouns are stressed:

Бомь.

[ˈbˠomʲ]

ˈbˠomʲ
love

“He (the boy) loves her (the girl).”

 (2)

But here, the word corresponding to he is stressed:

Поч бомь.

[ˈpˠot͡ʃ ˈbˠomʲ]

ˈpˠot͡ʃ
3.sing ˈbˠomʲ
love

“He loves her.”

 (3)

And here, it is the one translated as her that is stressed:

Бомь поч.

[ˈbˠomʲ ˈpˠot͡ʃ]

ˈbˠomʲ
love ˈpˠot͡ʃ
3.sing

“He loves her.”

 (4)

Proper Nouns

БыҀтасьпыѳёдь фумызъ быГeсяҙёдь.

[bˠiᵏǀˠaˈsʲpˠiθʲodʲ fˠuˈmˠizˠ bˠiheˈsʲaðʲodʲ]

bˠi-
def ᵏǀˠaˈsʲpˠiθʲ
Kaspith -odʲ
sing fˠuˈmˠizˠ
hate bˠi-
def heˈsʲaðʲ
Hesath -odʲ
sing

“Kaspith hates Hesath.”

 (5)

Possession

быпајoбодь бытямодь

[bˠipˠaˈjobˠodʲ bˠiˈtʲamˠodʲ]

bˠi-
def pˠaˈjobˠ
apple -odʲ
sing bˠi-
def ˈtʲamˠ
boy -odʲ
sing

“the boy’s apple”

 (6)
быпајoбодь поч

[bˠipˠaˈjobˠodʲ ˈpˠot͡ʃ]

bˠi-
def pˠaˈjobˠ
apple -odʲ
sing ˈpˠot͡ʃ
3.sing

“his (the boy’s) apple”

 (7)
быпајoбодь ҁныръ

[bˠipˠaˈjobˠodʲ ˈᵑǀˠiɾˠ]

bˠi-
def pˠaˈjobˠ
apple -odʲ
sing ˈᵑǀˠiɾˠ
1excl.sing

“my apple”

 (8)
Быпяuчoдь быѳэзуґодь ҙянёӈь бакь бынаuтёдь быхаӷяuрёдь мидъ.

[bˠiˈpʲaut͡ʃodʲ bˠiθˠeˈzˠuɡˠodʲ ðʲaˈnʲoŋʲ bˠakʲ bˠiˈnˠautʲodʲ bˠixˠaˈʁʲauɾʲodʲ ˈmʲidˠ]

bˠi-
def ˈpʲaut͡ʃ
daughter -odʲ
sing bˠi-
def θˠeˈzˠuɡˠ
hunter -odʲ
sing ðʲaˈnʲoŋʲ
kiss bˠakʲ
PAST bˠi-
def ˈnˠautʲ
son -odʲ
sing bˠi-
def xˠaˈʁʲauɾʲ
neighbour -odʲ
sing ˈmʲidˠ
2.sing

“The hunter’s daughter kissed your neighbour’s son.”

 (9)

Derivation

Har has a few derivational processes. To illustrate this, let us start with a simple noun phrase:

фё ҙяґедёдь

[ˈɸʲo ðʲaˈɡʲedʲodʲ]

ˈɸʲo
a ðʲaˈɡʲedʲ
lamb -odʲ
sing

“a lamb”

 (10)

In the following, the word for little becomes an affix attached to lamb:

фё ҙяґедёводь

[ˈɸʲo ðʲaˈɡʲedʲowˠodʲ]

ˈɸʲo
a ðʲaˈɡʲedʲ
lamb -owˠ
little -odʲ
sing

“a little lamb”

 (11)

Compounding

Verbs

Inflectional Categories

The verbal phrase clitics in Har fall into two categories, proclitics and enclitics: first, a clitic expressing question, comprising бунъ /bˠunˠ/ ‘Q’; second, a clitic expressing negation, comprising вунъ /wˠunˠ/ ‘NEG’; third, a clitic expressing mode, comprising јoӷь /joʁʲ/ ‘imperative’, вупь /wˠupʲ/ ‘conditional’ and рёѳь /ɾʲoθʲ/ ‘optative’; fourth, a clitic expressing ta, comprising бакь /bˠakʲ/ ‘PAST’; and finally, fifth, a clitic expressing voice, comprising ғинь /ɣʲinʲ/ ‘passive’.

The verb itself does not have any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

The verb displays the following derivational morphology: two suffixes, namely -си /-sʲi/ ‘begin’ and -хе /-xʲe/ ‘stop’

Бомь.

[ˈbˠomʲ]

ˈbˠomʲ
love

“I love you.”

 (12)

Adverbs Minor Classes

Adpositions

There is one type of clitic in the adpositional phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing root.

ѳяiфъ быхухёдь быґёмёдь

[ˈθʲaifˠ bˠiˈxˠuxʲodʲ bˠiˈɡʲomʲodʲ]

ˈθʲaifˠ
in bˠi-
def ˈxˠuxʲ
surface -odʲ
sing bˠi-
def ˈɡʲomʲ
table -odʲ
sing

“on the table”

 (13)
ҁнэг бычaфёдь бычiчuҙёдь

[ˈᵑǀˠeh bˠiˈt͡ʃaɸʲodʲ bˠit͡ʃiˈt͡ʃuðʲodʲ]

ˈᵑǀˠeh
to bˠi-
def ˈt͡ʃaɸʲ
inside -odʲ
sing bˠi-
def t͡ʃiˈt͡ʃuðʲ
box -odʲ
sing

“into the box”

 (14)
нюнэг ҁныръ

[nʲuˈnˠeh ˈᵑǀˠiɾˠ]

nʲuˈnˠeh
COMIT ˈᵑǀˠiɾˠ
1excl.sing

“with me”

 (15)

Syntax

Basic Clause Structure

Constituent Order

Constituent order describes the typical arrangement of the subject (S), verb (V) and object (O) in simple declarative clauses. It is a fundamental parameter in grammatical description and forms one of the clearest ways of characterising the overall structure of a language’s clause system.

Har employs Subject–Verb–Object (SVO) as its basic word order. The subject is followed by the verb, with the object occurring in post-verbal position. This ordering is widely attested across the world’s languages.

The following examples illustrate the basic, unmarked, constituent order in Har.

Бытокянёдь фапъ бакь быѳэзуґодь.

[bˠitˠoˈkʲanʲodʲ ˈfˠapˠ bˠakʲ bˠiθˠeˈzˠuɡˠodʲ]

bˠi-
def tˠoˈkʲanʲ
jaguar -odʲ
sing ˈfˠapˠ
kill bˠakʲ
PAST bˠi-
def θˠeˈzˠuɡˠ
hunter -odʲ
sing

“The jaguar killed the hunter.”

 (16)
Быфыхюрёдь каiвъ бакь быјайхёдь быпяuчoдь быѳэзуґодь.

[bˠiɸˠiˈxʲuɾʲodʲ ˈkˠaiwˠ bˠakʲ bˠiˈjaixʲodʲ bˠiˈpʲaut͡ʃodʲ bˠiθˠeˈzˠuɡˠodʲ]

bˠi-
def ɸˠiˈxʲuɾʲ
lion -odʲ
sing ˈkˠaiwˠ
eat bˠakʲ
PAST bˠi-
def ˈjaixʲ
dog -odʲ
sing bˠi-
def ˈpʲaut͡ʃ
daughter -odʲ
sing bˠi-
def θˠeˈzˠuɡˠ
hunter -odʲ
sing

“The lion ate the hunter’s daughter’s dog.”

 (17)

The language has a fixed constituent order, and major phrases normally appear in a predictable position in the clause. Movement for discourse reasons is highly restricted: topics and foci are expressed not by rearranging elements, but through dedicated constructions such as clefts, focus clauses or topic–comment frames. Constituents remain continuous, and both the relative order of phrases and the internal structure of each phrase are stable. As a result, significant deviations from the basic word order are ungrammatical, and discourse structure is managed through these specialised constructions rather than through word-order variation.

Noun Phrases

Structure and Order

The internal structure of noun phrases in Har reveals typologically significant preferences in the ordering of nominal constituents. This includes the position of adjectives, numerals, and possessors relative to the noun, each of which can offer clues to the overall headedness of the language.

Possessive constructions are head-initial: the possessed noun precedes the possessor. For instance, Har expresses “the child’s toy” with the equivalent of “toy child”. This structure is typologically rarer and often co-occurs with verb-initial syntax or with grammatical marking on the noun.

быбукодь бызифодь бынаuтёдь мидъ

[bˠibˠukˠodʲ bˠiˈzʲifˠodʲ bˠiˈnˠautʲodʲ ˈmʲidˠ]

bˠi-
def bˠukˠ
book -odʲ
sing bˠi-
def ˈzʲifˠ
friend -odʲ
sing bˠi-
def ˈnˠautʲ
son -odʲ
sing ˈmʲidˠ
2.sing

“your son’s friend’s book”

 (18)

Case Marking

Har does not use case marking to distinguish the core participants of the clause. There is therefore no regular nominative, accusative, ergative, active or stative marking on subjects and objects. Instead, the roles of the participants are identified by other means, cf. the examples below.

Быфюфодь ваiч.

[bˠiˈfʲuɸˠodʲ ˈwˠait͡ʃ]

bˠi-
def ˈfʲuɸˠ
cat -odʲ
sing ˈwˠait͡ʃ
sleep

“The cat is sleeping.”

 (19)
Быфюфодь кюфъ.

[bˠiˈfʲuɸˠodʲ ˈkʲuɸˠ]

bˠi-
def ˈfʲuɸˠ
cat -odʲ
sing ˈkʲuɸˠ
run

“The cat is running.”

 (20)
Быфюфодь ӈюӈаuръ быкисъпесьтодь.

[bˠiˈfʲuɸˠodʲ ŋʲuˈŋˠauɾˠ bˠikʲiˈsˠpʲesʲtˠodʲ]

bˠi-
def ˈfʲuɸˠ
cat -odʲ
sing ŋʲuˈŋˠauɾˠ
chase bˠi-
def kʲiˈsˠpʲesʲtˠ
mouse -odʲ
sing

“The cat is chasing the mouse.”

 (21)
Быфюфодь дёкь бакь быкисъпесьтодь.

[bˠiˈfʲuɸˠodʲ ˈdʲokʲ bˠakʲ bˠikʲiˈsˠpʲesʲtˠodʲ]

bˠi-
def ˈfʲuɸˠ
cat -odʲ
sing ˈdʲokʲ
catch bˠakʲ
PAST bˠi-
def kʲiˈsˠpʲesʲtˠ
mouse -odʲ
sing

“The cat caught the mouse.”

 (22)

Conjunctions

Here is an example of a conjunction.

Быѳэзуґодь фапъ бакь бытокянюг ғыдь быфиҙагuг ғыдь быфыхюрюг.

[bˠiθˠeˈzˠuɡˠodʲ ˈfˠapˠ bˠakʲ bˠitˠoˈkʲanʲuh ˈɣˠidʲ bˠifʲiˈðˠahuh ˈɣˠidʲ bˠiɸˠiˈxʲuɾʲuh]

bˠi-
def θˠeˈzˠuɡˠ
hunter -odʲ
sing ˈfˠapˠ
kill bˠakʲ
PAST bˠi-
def tˠoˈkʲanʲ
jaguar -uh
plur ˈɣˠidʲ
and bˠi-
def fʲiˈðˠah
tiger -uh
plur ˈɣˠidʲ
and bˠi-
def ɸˠiˈxʲuɾʲ
lion -uh
plur

“The hunter killed the jaguars, the tigers and the lions.”

 (23)

Modifiers and Determiners

The ordering of demonstratives, articles (if present), and other modifiers in Har provides further insight into the structure of the noun phrase. These elements frequently exhibit fixed positions and may reveal whether the language favours head-initial or head-final patterns.

Complex Sentences

Relative Clauses

Har uses the correlative strategy to form relative clauses. The relative clause is introduced by a dedicated relativiser and appears as an independent clause. The main clause contains a demonstrative that corresponds to the relativiser and identifies the element being modified. The relative clause precedes the main clause when used on its own, and follows the head noun when it functions as a modifier. The internal structure of both clauses is fully finite.

To illustrate how relative clauses work, let us begin with a simple sentence:

Фязымъ бакь быфюфодь.

[fʲaˈzˠimˠ bˠakʲ bˠiˈfʲuɸˠodʲ]

fʲaˈzˠimˠ
pat bˠakʲ
PAST bˠi-
def ˈfʲuɸˠ
cat -odʲ
sing

“I patted the cat.”

 (24)

We can now add a relative clause modifying the noun:

Дёкь бакь быкисъпесьтодь фязымъ бакь поч ѳэвъ.

[ˈdʲokʲ bˠakʲ bˠikʲiˈsˠpʲesʲtˠodʲ fʲaˈzˠimˠ bˠakʲ ˈpˠot͡ʃ ˈθˠewˠ]

ˈdʲokʲ
catch bˠakʲ
PAST bˠi-
def kʲiˈsˠpʲesʲtˠ
mouse -odʲ
sing fʲaˈzˠimˠ
pat bˠakʲ
PAST ˈpˠot͡ʃ
3.sing ˈθˠewˠ
then

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse.”

 (25)

Relative clauses may themselves contain other relative clauses:

Каiвъ бакь быфямуфодь дёкь бакь поч ѳэвъ фязымъ бакь поч ѳэвъ.

[ˈkˠaiwˠ bˠakʲ bˠiɸʲaˈmˠuɸˠodʲ ˈdʲokʲ bˠakʲ ˈpˠot͡ʃ ˈθˠewˠ fʲaˈzˠimˠ bˠakʲ ˈpˠot͡ʃ ˈθˠewˠ]

ˈkˠaiwˠ
eat bˠakʲ
PAST bˠi-
def ɸʲaˈmˠuɸˠ
cheese -odʲ
sing ˈdʲokʲ
catch bˠakʲ
PAST ˈpˠot͡ʃ
3.sing ˈθˠewˠ
then fʲaˈzˠimˠ
pat bˠakʲ
PAST ˈpˠot͡ʃ
3.sing ˈθˠewˠ
then

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese.”

 (26)

Finally, here is an example containing several layers of embedding:

Ѳаѳъ бакь каiвъ бакь поч ѳэвъ дёкь бакь поч ѳэвъ фязымъ бакь поч ѳэвъ.

[ˈθˠaθˠ bˠakʲ ˈkˠaiwˠ bˠakʲ ˈpˠot͡ʃ ˈθˠewˠ ˈdʲokʲ bˠakʲ ˈpˠot͡ʃ ˈθˠewˠ fʲaˈzˠimˠ bˠakʲ ˈpˠot͡ʃ ˈθˠewˠ]

ˈθˠaθˠ
buy bˠakʲ
PAST ˈkˠaiwˠ
eat bˠakʲ
PAST ˈpˠot͡ʃ
3.sing ˈθˠewˠ
then ˈdʲokʲ
catch bˠakʲ
PAST ˈpˠot͡ʃ
3.sing ˈθˠewˠ
then fʲaˈzˠimˠ
pat bˠakʲ
PAST ˈpˠot͡ʃ
3.sing ˈθˠewˠ
then

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese that I bought.”

 (27)

Complementation Strategies

Har introduces complement clauses with a dedicated complementiser, similar to English that. The complementiser appears at the beginning of the embedded clause and signals that the clause functions as a syntactic argument. The embedded clause is fully finite and displays the same tense, aspect and agreement patterns as independent clauses.

The following example illustrate how complement clauses function:

Бытямодь рёхъ бакь быфасодь фё пајoбодь зачайфь ӷыськағъ бакь быдычeјoдь.

[bˠiˈtʲamˠodʲ ˈɾʲoxˠ bˠakʲ bˠiˈfˠasˠodʲ ˈɸʲo pˠaˈjobˠodʲ zˠaˈt͡ʃaifʲ ʁˠiˈsʲkˠaɣˠ bˠakʲ bˠidˠit͡ʃejodʲ]

bˠi-
def ˈtʲamˠ
boy -odʲ
sing ˈɾʲoxˠ
give bˠakʲ
PAST bˠi-
def ˈfˠasˠ
girl -odʲ
sing ˈɸʲo
a pˠaˈjobˠ
apple -odʲ
sing zˠaˈt͡ʃaifʲ
COMP ʁˠiˈsʲkˠaɣˠ
surprise bˠakʲ
PAST bˠi-
def dˠit͡ʃej
teacher -odʲ
sing

“It surprised the teacher that the boy had given the girl an apple.”

 (28)

Quotes

Har employs a quotative particle to mark direct and indirect speech. The quotative follows the reported phrase and identifies the preceding expression as quoted or reported. The same construction is also used to express reported thoughts.

Here is an example of how quotations are expressed:

Бытямодь моґь бакь быфасодь ҁныръ бомь мидъ зачайфь.

[bˠiˈtʲamˠodʲ ˈmˠoɡʲ bˠakʲ bˠiˈfˠasˠodʲ ˈᵑǀˠiɾˠ ˈbˠomʲ ˈmʲidˠ zˠaˈt͡ʃaifʲ]

bˠi-
def ˈtʲamˠ
boy -odʲ
sing ˈmˠoɡʲ
tell bˠakʲ
PAST bˠi-
def ˈfˠasˠ
girl -odʲ
sing ˈᵑǀˠiɾˠ
1excl.sing ˈbˠomʲ
love ˈmʲidˠ
2.sing zˠaˈt͡ʃaifʲ
COMP

“The boy told the girl that he loved her.”

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How to cite this grammar

Language Creator. 2026. A Grammar of Har. Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 22 August 2026. https://languagecreator.org/grammar/2GPXU

In BibTeX format:

@misc{LC-2GPXU,
  year         = 2026,
  author       = {{Language Creator}},
  title        = {A Grammar of {Har}},
  howpublished = {\url{https://languagecreator.org/grammar/2GPXU}},
  note         = {Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 22 August 2026}
}

Supplementary Materials

A collection of illustrative texts and a bilingual dictionary (English–Har / Har–English) accompany this grammar. The complete work – comprising the grammar, dictionary and texts – may also be downloaded in ODT or DOCX format.

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https://languagecreator.org/grammar/2GPXU

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