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A Grammar of Tes

Introduction

Scope and Purpose

This grammar provides a systematic description of the Tes language (the 1700th one produced by the Language Creator), outlining its sound system, word formation and syntactic structure, with the aim of presenting a coherent account of the language as an integrated whole. Attention has been paid to both regular patterns and minor irregularities, as these together define the internal balance of the language.

The grammar is accompanied by a bilingual dictionary and a collection of illustrative texts, offering material for further study and comparison. The examples have been selected to demonstrate typical constructions and to give a sense of the language in extended use. The description is intended as a reference work for linguists and language enthusiasts alike, and as a foundation for any future research, teaching or creative adaptation of Tes.

Typological Profile

It has the highly uncommon basic word order OVS.

Phonology

Phoneme Inventory

Consonants

Tes has a large consonant inventory, comprising 34 phonemes.

It has an exceptionally large and contrastive labial series, a noticeable presence of pharyngealised phonemes and a modest set of implosive stops.

The table below presents the full inventory of consonant phonemes in Tes. The chart lists all places and manners of articulation attested in the language.

labialdentalphar. dentalalveolarphar. alveolarpostalveolarlateralpalatalvelarglottal
stopp b d t dˤ tˤ k ɡ
ejective stopkʼ
nasalm n nˤ ɲ
fricativef v θ θˤ s z sˤ zˤ ʃ ʒ x ɣ h
approximantw l j
affricatet͡ʃ
implosiveɓ ɗ ɗˤ

Vowels

Tes has 8 vowel qualities, forming a relatively large inventory. The system distinguishes several vowel categories, as indicated in the chart, offering a wide range of vocalic contrasts.

It has a triangular vowel system with few low vowels, front rounded vowels (these are cross-linguistically relatively uncommon, but occur in a number of well-known languages, including French, German, Turkish and Mandarin) and a fully three-way front–central–back distinction.

The table below presents the full inventory of vowel phonemes in Tes. The system comprises the distinct vowel qualities listed in the chart.

front unroundedfront roundedcentralback
closei y ʉ u
mide ø o
opena

Stress and Tones

Tes has phonemic stress but no lexical tone. Stress consistently falls on the first vowel of the root, and no contrastive tonal distinctions are made.

Phonological Processes

Vowel Harmony

The language employs vowel harmony. To be specific, the following vowels change to match the first vowel of the root: /u/ becomes /y/, /o/ becomes /ø/.

Writing System

Introduction

Tes is normally written using the Latin alphabet, whose familiarity makes it straightforward for most readers. For clarity and precision, phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are also provided throughout this grammar.

Orthography

Here are the various components of the orthography:

Simple letters

a /a/b /b/d /d/ḍ /dˤ/
e /e/f /f/g /ɡ/h /h/
i /i/j /j/k /k/l /l/
m /m/n /n/ṇ /nˤ/o /o/
p /p/s /s/ṣ /sˤ/t /t/
ṭ /tˤ/u /u/v /v/w /w/
y /y/z /z/ẓ /zˤ/ñ /ɲ/
ö /ø/ğ /ɣ/ʉ /ʉ/

Multi-letter combinations such as digraphs

bb /ɓ/ch /t͡ʃ/dd /ɗ/
dḍ /ɗˤ/gk /kʼ/kh /x/
sh /ʃ/th /θ/tḥ /θˤ/
zh /ʒ/

Word Classes and Morphology

Number and Gender

Number

Tes does not have grammatical number.

Gender

Tes has the following genders:

Gender masc – for instance: bif ‘house’, chataf ‘faeces’, dḍaṣön ‘tiger’, ḍilö ‘stick’, ḍoddoṣ ‘guts’, faf ‘bird’, fes ‘speech’, gkaṣoṣ ‘net’, nön ‘boy’, ṇatam ‘wild boar’, ṇidda ‘mouse’, pym ‘child’, shiṣ ‘leaf’, ṣavof ‘apple’, ṭajum ‘bark’, was ‘surface’, zhyṣ ‘man’, zhʉwon ‘snake’, ñen ‘meat’, ñeṭʉm ‘student’.

Gender fem – for instance: botheṣ ‘court’, chawöf ‘sand’, chen ‘tree’, chʉzhef ‘mortar’, dḍiṣ ‘nose’, dḍʉn ‘name’, ḍem ‘fish’, ḍiṇ ‘knife’, gkino ‘slime’, gkiẓöl ‘salt’, gugon ‘fingernail’, hom ‘tooth’, jashum ‘binoculars’, khalʉf ‘anus’, khöf ‘animal’, lyn ‘head’, lʉkho ‘forest’, ṇathi ‘bosom’, sal ‘chair’, vöṣ ‘wind’.

The Nominal Phrase

Nominal phrases in Tes can be exemplified by the following example:

Lel ṇidda tefem gkʉs thadḍof ṭʉs jʉf gaṣ tḥapaṇ jʉf ḍiṇ.

[ˈlel nˤiˈɗa ˈtefem ˈkʼʉs ˈθaɗˤof tˤʉs ˈjʉf ˈɡasˤ θˤaˈpanˤ ˈjʉf ˈdˤinˤ]

ˈle
yon -l
masc nˤiˈɗa
mouse ˈtef
blind -em
ACC ˈkʼʉs
three ˈθaɗˤ
catch -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST ˈjʉ
the -f
fem ˈɡasˤ
woman θˤaˈpanˤ
COMIT ˈjʉ
the -f
fem ˈdˤinˤ
knife

“The woman with the knife caught those three blind mice.”

 (1)

In the following, we shall look at the various components in more details.

There are no clitics in the nominal phrase.

The Noun

The noun in Tes stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

The noun displays the following derivational morphology: 11 suffixes, namely -tḥa /-θˤa/ ‘little’, -zha /-ʒa/ ‘big’, -be /-be/ ‘old’, -dḍe /-ɗˤe/ ‘new’, -ṭi /-tˤi/ ‘good’, -gki /-kʼi/ ‘bad’, -tesh /-teʃ/ ‘have’, -bbew /-ɓew/ ‘use’, -sezh /-seʒ/ ‘see’, -ṇʉtḥ /-nˤʉθˤ/ ‘make’ and -bbidd /-ɓiɗ/ ‘break’

The Adjective

In Tes, the adjective has the following structure: the root followed by an optional suffix expressing case, comprising -em /-em/ ‘ACC’, -ol /-ol/ ‘DAT’, -im /-im/ ‘INS’, -e /-e/ ‘VOC’, -os /-os/ ‘ALL’, -if /-if/ ‘LOC’, -in /-in/ ‘ABL’ and -oṇ /-onˤ/ ‘PART’.

Numerals

The numeral in Tes stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Determiners

In Tes, the determiner has the following structure: the root followed by an obligatory suffix expressing gender, comprising -l /-l/ ‘masc’ and -f /-f/ ‘fem’.

Pronouns

The pronoun in Tes stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

In Tes, subject pronouns (but not object pronouns ones) are dropped unless they are stressed. Here is an example where neither of the pronouns are stressed:

Si jabof.

[ˈsi ˈjabof]

ˈsi
3.fem ˈjab
love -of
not.COMP

“He (the boy) loves her (the girl).”

 (2)

But here, the word corresponding to he (i.e., the subject) is stressed:

Si jabof tḥys.

[ˈsi ˈjabof ˈθˤys]

ˈsi
3.fem ˈjab
love -of
not.COMP ˈθˤys
3.masc

“He loves her.”

 (3)

Proper Nouns

Jʉf Zityn moṣagof jʉl Shuẓo.

[ˈjʉf ziˈtyn moˈsˤaɡof ˈjʉl ʃuˈzˤo]

ˈjʉ
the -f
fem ziˈtyn
Zitoon moˈsˤaɡ
hate -of
not.COMP ˈjʉ
the -l
masc ʃuˈzˤo
Shuzo

“Shuzo hates Zitoon.”

 (4)

Possession

jʉl ṣavof jʉl nön

[ˈjʉl sˤaˈvof ˈjʉl ˈnøn]

ˈjʉ
the -l
masc sˤaˈvof
apple ˈjʉ
the -l
masc ˈnøn
boy

“the boy’s apple”

 (5)
jʉl ṣavof tḥys

[ˈjʉl sˤaˈvof ˈθˤys]

ˈjʉ
the -l
masc sˤaˈvof
apple ˈθˤys
3.masc

“his (the boy’s) apple”

 (6)
jʉl ṣavof jʉṇ

[ˈjʉl sˤaˈvof ˈjʉnˤ]

ˈjʉ
the -l
masc sˤaˈvof
apple ˈjʉnˤ
1excl

“my apple”

 (7)
Jʉl nyṣ jʉf mygön gil hañoddof ṭʉs jʉf se jʉl ḍigky.

[ˈjʉl ˈnysˤ ˈjʉf myˈɡøn ˈɡil haˈɲoɗof tˤʉs ˈjʉf ˈse ˈjʉl dˤiˈkʼy]

ˈjʉ
the -l
masc ˈnysˤ
son ˈjʉ
the -f
fem muˈɡøn
neighbour ˈɡil
2 haˈɲoɗ
kiss -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST ˈjʉ
the -f
fem ˈse
daughter ˈjʉ
the -l
masc dˤiˈkʼy
hunter

“The hunter’s daughter kissed your neighbour’s son.”

 (8)

Derivation

saṣam

[saˈsˤam]

saˈsˤam
lamb

“a lamb”

 (9)
saṣamtḥa

[saˈsˤamθˤa]

saˈsˤam
lamb -θˤa
little

“a little lamb”

 (10)
Saṣamtḥateshof ṭʉs.

[saˈsˤamθˤateʃof tˤʉs]

saˈsˤam
lamb -θˤa
little -teʃ
have -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST

“She had a little lamb.”

 (11)

This doesn’t affect all adjectives and verbs. Compare, for instance the previous example with this one, where black and love do not undergo affixation:

Saṣam köṣem jabof ṭʉs.

[saˈsˤam ˈkøsˤem ˈjabof tˤʉs]

saˈsˤam
lamb ˈkøsˤ
black -em
ACC ˈjab
love -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST

“She loved a black lamb.”

 (12)

Compounding

Verbs

Inflectional Categories

The verbal phrase clitics in Tes fall into two categories, proclitics and enclitics: first, a clitic expressing voice, comprising chul /t͡ʃul/ ‘passive’; second, a clitic expressing ta, comprising ṭʉs /tˤʉs/ ‘PAST’; third, a clitic expressing mode, comprising gof /ɡof/ ‘imperative’, zoṇ /zonˤ/ ‘conditional’ and tḥan /θˤan/ ‘optative’; fourth, a clitic expressing negation, comprising ṇan /nˤan/ ‘NEG’; and finally, fifth, a clitic expressing question, comprising bʉ /bʉ/ ‘Q’.

In addition, the verb is structured like this: the root followed by an obligatory suffix expressing comp, comprising -of /-of/ ‘not.COMP’ and -om /-om/ ‘COMP’.

The verb displays the following derivational morphology: five suffixes, namely -ab /-ab/ ‘begin’, -im /-im/ ‘stop’, -is /-is/ ‘continue’, -atḥ /-aθˤ/ ‘try’ and -af /-af/ ‘start’

Gil jabof.

[ˈɡil ˈjabof]

ˈɡil
2 ˈjab
love -of
not.COMP

“I love you.”

 (13)

Adverbs Minor Classes

Adpositions

There is one type of clitic in the adpositional phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing root.

pyl was jʉf chuṇ

[ˈpyl ˈwas ˈjʉf ˈt͡ʃunˤ]

ˈpyl
in ˈwas
surface ˈjʉ
the -f
fem ˈt͡ʃunˤ
table

“on the table”

 (14)
dem chʉṣ jʉf dḍepʉm

[ˈdem ˈt͡ʃʉsˤ ˈjʉf ɗˤeˈpʉm]

ˈdem
to ˈt͡ʃʉsˤ
inside ˈjʉ
the -f
fem ɗˤeˈpʉm
box

“into the box”

 (15)
tḥapaṇ jʉṇ

[θˤaˈpanˤ ˈjʉnˤ]

θˤaˈpanˤ
COMIT ˈjʉnˤ
1excl

“with me”

 (16)

Syntax

Basic Clause Structure

Constituent Order

Constituent order describes the typical arrangement of the subject (S), verb (V) and object (O) in simple declarative clauses. It is a fundamental parameter in grammatical description and forms one of the clearest ways of characterising the overall structure of a language’s clause system.

Tes has Object–Verb–Subject (OVS) as its basic constituent order. Clauses begin with the object, followed by the verb, with the subject in final position. This is a rare but attested configuration in the world’s languages.

The following examples illustrate the basic, unmarked, constituent order in Tes.

Jʉl ḍigky panof ṭʉs jʉf kawʉṣ.

[ˈjʉl dˤiˈkʼy ˈpanof tˤʉs ˈjʉf kaˈwʉsˤ]

ˈjʉ
the -l
masc dˤiˈkʼy
hunter ˈpan
kill -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST ˈjʉ
the -f
fem kaˈwʉsˤ
jaguar

“The jaguar killed the hunter.”

 (17)
Jʉl nʉn jʉf se jʉl ḍigky vagof ṭʉs jʉf gkʉkʉm.

[ˈjʉl ˈnʉn ˈjʉf ˈse ˈjʉl dˤiˈkʼy ˈvaɡof tˤʉs ˈjʉf kʼʉˈkʉm]

ˈjʉ
the -l
masc ˈnʉn
dog ˈjʉ
the -f
fem ˈse
daughter ˈjʉ
the -l
masc dˤiˈkʼy
hunter ˈvaɡ
eat -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST ˈjʉ
the -f
fem kʼʉˈkʉm
lion

“The lion ate the hunter’s daughter’s dog.”

 (18)

The language has a fixed constituent order, and major phrases normally appear in a predictable position in the clause. Movement for discourse reasons is highly restricted: topics and foci are expressed not by rearranging elements, but through dedicated constructions such as clefts, focus clauses or topic–comment frames. Constituents remain continuous, and both the relative order of phrases and the internal structure of each phrase are stable. As a result, significant deviations from the basic word order are ungrammatical, and discourse structure is managed through these specialised constructions rather than through word-order variation.

Noun Phrases

Structure and Order

The internal structure of noun phrases in Tes reveals typologically significant preferences in the ordering of nominal constituents. This includes the position of adjectives, numerals, and possessors relative to the noun, each of which can offer clues to the overall headedness of the language.

Possessive constructions are head-initial: the possessed noun precedes the possessor. For instance, Tes expresses “the child’s toy” with the equivalent of “toy child”. This structure is typologically rarer and often co-occurs with verb-initial syntax or with grammatical marking on the noun.

jʉf pukef jʉf chu jʉl nyṣ gil

[ˈjʉf pukef ˈjʉf ˈt͡ʃu ˈjʉl ˈnysˤ ˈɡil]

ˈjʉ
the -f
fem pukef
book ˈjʉ
the -f
fem ˈt͡ʃu
friend ˈjʉ
the -l
masc ˈnysˤ
son ˈɡil
2

“your son’s friend’s book”

 (19)

Case Marking

Tes uses nominative–accusative case marking. The subject of an intransitive verb and the subject of a transitive verb are treated alike and take the nominative case, while the object of a transitive verb is marked with the accusative case. This is the familiar pattern from many European languages: the grammar groups together the participants that function as subjects and marks the participant affected by a transitive action separately.

Ḍuzof jʉl vof.

[ˈdˤuzof ˈjʉl ˈvof]

ˈdˤuz
sleep -of
not.COMP ˈjʉ
the -l
masc ˈvof
cat

“The cat is sleeping.”

 (20)
Techof jʉl vof.

[ˈtet͡ʃof ˈjʉl ˈvof]

ˈtet͡ʃ
run -of
not.COMP ˈjʉ
the -l
masc ˈvof
cat

“The cat is running.”

 (21)
Jʉl ṇidda fugkʉvof jʉl vof.

[ˈjʉl nˤiˈɗa fuˈkʼʉvof ˈjʉl ˈvof]

ˈjʉ
the -l
masc nˤiˈɗa
mouse fuˈkʼʉv
chase -of
not.COMP ˈjʉ
the -l
masc ˈvof
cat

“The cat is chasing the mouse.”

 (22)
Jʉl ṇidda thadḍof ṭʉs jʉl vof.

[ˈjʉl nˤiˈɗa ˈθaɗˤof tˤʉs ˈjʉl ˈvof]

ˈjʉ
the -l
masc nˤiˈɗa
mouse ˈθaɗˤ
catch -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST ˈjʉ
the -l
masc ˈvof
cat

“The cat caught the mouse.”

 (23)

Conjunctions

Here is an example of a conjunction.

Jʉf kawʉṣ höṇ jʉl dḍaṣön höṇ jʉf gkʉkʉm panof ṭʉs jʉl ḍigky.

[ˈjʉf kaˈwʉsˤ ˈhønˤ ˈjʉl ɗˤaˈsˤøn ˈhønˤ ˈjʉf kʼʉˈkʉm ˈpanof tˤʉs ˈjʉl dˤiˈkʼy]

ˈjʉ
the -f
fem kaˈwʉsˤ
jaguar ˈhønˤ
and ˈjʉ
the -l
masc ɗˤaˈsˤøn
tiger ˈhønˤ
and ˈjʉ
the -f
fem kʼʉˈkʉm
lion ˈpan
kill -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST ˈjʉ
the -l
masc dˤiˈkʼy
hunter

“The hunter killed the jaguars, the tigers and the lions.”

 (24)

Modifiers and Determiners

The ordering of demonstratives, articles (if present), and other modifiers in Tes provides further insight into the structure of the noun phrase. These elements frequently exhibit fixed positions and may reveal whether the language favours head-initial or head-final patterns.

Complex Sentences

Relative Clauses

Tes forms relative clauses by placing the relative clause after the noun it modifies. The clause follows the internal word order of ordinary finite clauses. A dedicated relativising marker introduces the clause and identifies the relationship between the head noun and its role inside the relative clause.

To illustrate how relative clauses work, let us begin with a simple sentence:

Jʉl vof dḍukhashof ṭʉs.

[ˈjʉl ˈvof ɗˤuˈxaʃof tˤʉs]

ˈjʉ
the -l
masc ˈvof
cat ɗˤuˈxaʃ
pat -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST

“I patted the cat.”

 (25)

We can now add a relative clause modifying the noun:

Dḍukhashof ṭʉs jʉl vof, bbyṣ thadḍof ṭʉs jʉl ṇidda.

[ɗˤuˈxaʃof tˤʉs ˈjʉl ˈvof, ˈɓysˤ ˈθaɗˤof tˤʉs ˈjʉl nˤiˈɗa]

ɗˤuˈxaʃ
pat -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST ˈjʉ
the -l
masc ˈvof
cat ˈɓysˤ
RELPRON ˈθaɗˤ
catch -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST ˈjʉ
the -l
masc nˤiˈɗa
mouse

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse.”

 (26)

Relative clauses may themselves contain other relative clauses:

Dḍukhashof ṭʉs jʉl vof, bbyṣ thadḍof ṭʉs jʉl ṇidda, bbyṣ vagof ṭʉs jʉl gkiẓan.

[ɗˤuˈxaʃof tˤʉs ˈjʉl ˈvof, ˈɓysˤ ˈθaɗˤof tˤʉs ˈjʉl nˤiˈɗa, ˈɓysˤ ˈvaɡof tˤʉs ˈjʉl kʼiˈzˤan]

ɗˤuˈxaʃ
pat -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST ˈjʉ
the -l
masc ˈvof
cat ˈɓysˤ
RELPRON ˈθaɗˤ
catch -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST ˈjʉ
the -l
masc nˤiˈɗa
mouse ˈɓysˤ
RELPRON ˈvaɡ
eat -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST ˈjʉ
the -l
masc kʼiˈzˤan
cheese

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese.”

 (27)

Finally, here is an example containing several layers of embedding:

Dḍukhashof ṭʉs jʉl vof, bbyṣ thadḍof ṭʉs jʉl ṇidda, bbyṣ vagof ṭʉs jʉl gkiẓan, bbyṣ chigkof ṭʉs jʉṇ.

[ɗˤuˈxaʃof tˤʉs ˈjʉl ˈvof, ˈɓysˤ ˈθaɗˤof tˤʉs ˈjʉl nˤiˈɗa, ˈɓysˤ ˈvaɡof tˤʉs ˈjʉl kʼiˈzˤan, ˈɓysˤ ˈt͡ʃikʼof tˤʉs ˈjʉnˤ]

ɗˤuˈxaʃ
pat -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST ˈjʉ
the -l
masc ˈvof
cat ˈɓysˤ
RELPRON ˈθaɗˤ
catch -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST ˈjʉ
the -l
masc nˤiˈɗa
mouse ˈɓysˤ
RELPRON ˈvaɡ
eat -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST ˈjʉ
the -l
masc kʼiˈzˤan
cheese ˈɓysˤ
RELPRON ˈt͡ʃikʼ
buy -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST ˈjʉnˤ
1excl

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese that I bought.”

 (28)

Complementation Strategies

Tes marks complement clauses with subordinating verbal morphology. The embedded verb is fully finite and carries a subordinating suffix that identifies the clause as a complement. No structural changes occur within the clause apart from this verbal marking.

The following example illustrate how complement clauses function:

Jʉf gunus pʉhudḍof ṭʉs ṣavof jʉf tḥe ḍevom ṭʉs jʉl nön.

[ˈjʉf ɡunus pʉˈhuɗˤof tˤʉs sˤaˈvof ˈjʉf ˈθˤe ˈdˤevom tˤʉs ˈjʉl ˈnøn]

ˈjʉ
the -f
fem ɡunus
teacher pʉˈhuɗˤ
surprise -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST sˤaˈvof
apple ˈjʉ
the -f
fem ˈθˤe
girl ˈdˤev
give -om
COMP tˤʉs
PAST ˈjʉ
the -l
masc ˈnøn
boy

“It surprised the teacher that the boy had given the girl an apple.”

 (29)

Quotes

Tes employs a quotative particle to mark direct and indirect speech. The quotative follows the reported phrase and identifies the preceding expression as quoted or reported. The same construction is also used to express reported thoughts.

Here is an example of how quotations are expressed:

Gil jabom jʉṇ jʉf tḥe gofof ṭʉs jʉl nön.

[ˈɡil ˈjabom ˈjʉnˤ ˈjʉf ˈθˤe ˈɡofof tˤʉs ˈjʉl ˈnøn]

ˈɡil
2 ˈjab
love -om
COMP ˈjʉnˤ
1excl ˈjʉ
the -f
fem ˈθˤe
girl ˈɡof
tell -of
not.COMP tˤʉs
PAST ˈjʉ
the -l
masc ˈnøn
boy

“The boy told the girl that he loved her.”

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How to cite this grammar

Language Creator. 2026. A Grammar of Tes. Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 17 September 2026. https://languagecreator.org/grammar/524ZJ

In BibTeX format:

@misc{LC-524ZJ,
  year         = 2026,
  author       = {{Language Creator}},
  title        = {A Grammar of {Tes}},
  howpublished = {\url{https://languagecreator.org/grammar/524ZJ}},
  note         = {Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 17 September 2026}
}

Supplementary Materials

A collection of illustrative texts and a bilingual dictionary (English–Tes / Tes–English) accompany this grammar. The complete work – comprising the grammar, dictionary and texts – may also be downloaded in ODT or DOCX format.

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https://languagecreator.org/grammar/524ZJ

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