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A Grammar of Inyagh

Introduction

Scope and Purpose

This grammar provides a systematic description of the Inyagh language (the 579th one produced by the Language Creator), outlining its sound system, word formation and syntactic structure, with the aim of presenting a coherent account of the language as an integrated whole. Attention has been paid to both regular patterns and minor irregularities, as these together define the internal balance of the language.

The grammar is accompanied by a bilingual dictionary and a collection of illustrative texts, offering material for further study and comparison. The examples have been selected to demonstrate typical constructions and to give a sense of the language in extended use. The description is intended as a reference work for linguists and language enthusiasts alike, and as a foundation for any future research, teaching or creative adaptation of Inyagh.

Typological Profile

It has postpositions.

Phonology

Phoneme Inventory

Consonants

Inyagh has a moderately large consonant inventory, with 26 phonemes.

It has a notably rich set of sibilant contrasts and a broad and varied fricative inventory.

The table below presents the full inventory of consonant phonemes in Inyagh. The chart lists all places and manners of articulation attested in the language.

labialalveolarpostalveolarlateralpalatalvelaruvularglottal
stopp b d t k ɡ ʔ
nasalm n ɲ ŋ
fricativef s z ʃ ʒ x ɣ ʁ h
approximantw ɾ j
affricatet͡s t͡ʃ

Vowels

Inyagh has 7 vowel qualities, forming a relatively large inventory. The system distinguishes several vowel categories, as indicated in the chart, offering a wide range of vocalic contrasts.

It has occasional ghost vowels that surface only weakly and a moderately reduced system of unstressed vowels.

The table below presents the full inventory of vowel phonemes in Inyagh. The system comprises the distinct vowel qualities listed in the chart.

frontcentralback
closei u
mide o
opena

Stress and Tones

Inyagh has phonemic stress but no lexical tone. Stress consistently falls on the first vowel of the root, and no contrastive tonal distinctions are made.

Phonological Processes

Vowel Harmony

Vowel harmony does not exist in this language.

Writing System

Introduction

Inyagh is normally written using the Latin alphabet, whose familiarity makes it straightforward for most readers. For clarity and precision, phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are also provided throughout this grammar.

Orthography

Here are the various components of the orthography:

Simple letters

a /a/b /b/d /d/e /e/
f /f/g /ɡ/h /h/i /i/
j /j/k /k/m /m/n /n/
o /o/p /p/q /ʔ/r /ɾ/
s /s/t /t/u /u/w /w/
z /z/ñ /ɲ/ğ /ɣ/ʁ /ʁ/

Multi-letter combinations such as digraphs

ai /ai/au /au/ch /t͡ʃ/
kh /x/ng /ŋ/sh /ʃ/
tz /t͡s/zh /ʒ/

Word Classes and Morphology

Number and Gender

Number

Inyagh does not have grammatical number.

Gender

Inyagh does not have genders or noun classes.

The Nominal Phrase

Nominal phrases in Inyagh can be exemplified by the following example:

Stuch khog stuch khinañ sitar dad sqaiʁ tzowuzh naujudin zhiq ʁat.

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxoɡ ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxinaɲ siˈtaɾ ˈdad ˈsʔaiʁ ˈt͡sowuʒ ˈnaujudin ʒiʔ ˈʁat]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈoɡ
woman ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈinaɲ
knife siˈtaɾ
COMIT ˈdad
yon ˈsʔaiʁ
three ˈt͡sow
blind -uʒ
ACC n-
plur ˈaujudin
mouse ʒiʔ
PAST ˈʁat
catch

“The woman with the knife caught those three blind mice.”

 (1)

In the following, we shall look at the various components in more details.

There are no clitics in the nominal phrase.

The Noun

The noun in Inyagh consists of an obligatory prefix expressing number, comprising kh- /x-/ ‘sing’ and n- /n-/ ‘plur’ followed by the root.

The noun displays the following derivational morphology: six suffixes, namely -khi /-xi/ ‘little’, -shtu /-ʃtu/ ‘big’, -wa /-wa/ ‘old’, -tza /-t͡sa/ ‘new’, -wi /-wi/ ‘good’ and -chi /-t͡ʃi/ ‘bad’, and five circumfixes, namely sh-si /ʃ-si/ ‘have’, f-ñu /f-ɲu/ ‘use’, n-ma /n-ma/ ‘see’, s-ʁa /s-ʁa/ ‘make’ and h-ʁu /h-ʁu/ ‘break’

The Adjective

In Inyagh, the adjective has the following structure: the root followed by an optional suffix expressing case, comprising -uzh /-uʒ/ ‘ACC’, -uf /-uf/ ‘GEN’, -ir /-iɾ/ ‘DAT’, -if /-if/ ‘INS’, -un /-un/ ‘VOC’, -ik /-ik/ ‘ALL’, -ung /-uŋ/ ‘LOC’, -in /-in/ ‘ABL’ and -uh /-uh/ ‘PART’.

Numerals

The numeral in Inyagh stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Determiners

The determiner in Inyagh stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Pronouns

The pronoun in Inyagh stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

In Inyagh, subject pronouns (but not object pronouns ones) are dropped unless they are stressed. Here is an example where neither of the pronouns are stressed:

Kap qaum.

[ˈkap ˈʔaum]

ˈkap
3.sing ˈʔaum
love

“He (the boy) loves her (the girl).”

 (2)

But here, the word corresponding to he (i.e., the subject) is stressed:

Kap kap qaum.

[ˈkap ˈkap ˈʔaum]

ˈkap
3.sing ˈkap
3.sing ˈʔaum
love

“He loves her.”

 (3)

Proper Nouns

Stuch khAigusan stuch khIgijuz ginop.

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxaiɡusan ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxiɡijuz ɡiˈnop]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈaiɡusan
Aigusan ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈiɡijuz
Igiyuz ɡiˈnop
hate

“Aigusan hates Igiyuz.”

 (4)

Possession

stuch khez stuch khakhufab

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxez ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxaxufab]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈez
boy ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈaxufab
apple

“the boy’s apple”

 (5)
kap stuch khakhufab

[ˈkap ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxaxufab]

ˈkap
3.sing ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈaxufab
apple

“his (the boy’s) apple”

 (6)
ğash stuch khakhufab

[ˈɣaʃ ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxaxufab]

ˈɣaʃ
1excl.sing ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈaxufab
apple

“my apple”

 (7)
Stuch khizangad stuch khiz kang stuch khatzuzhdin stuch khef zhiq khichaf.

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxizaŋad ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxiz ˈkaŋ ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxat͡suʒdin ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxef ʒiʔ xiˈt͡ʃaf]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈizaŋad
hunter ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈiz
daughter ˈkaŋ
2.sing ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈat͡suʒdin
neighbour ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈef
son ʒiʔ
PAST xiˈt͡ʃaf
kiss

“The hunter’s daughter kissed your neighbour’s son.”

 (8)

Derivation

khaiñakhun

[ˈxaiɲaxun]

x-
sing ˈaiɲaxun
lamb

“a lamb”

 (9)
khaiñakhunkhi

[ˈxaiɲaxunxi]

x-
sing ˈaiɲaxun
lamb -xi
little

“a little lamb”

 (10)
Zhiq shaiñakhunkhisi.

[ʒiʔ ˈʃaiɲaxunxisi]

ʒiʔ
PAST ʃ-
have₁ ˈaiɲaxun
lamb -xi
little -si
have₂

“She had a little lamb.”

 (11)

This doesn’t affect all adjectives and verbs. Compare, for instance the previous example with this one, where black and love do not undergo affixation:

Pipuzh khaiñakhun zhiq qaum.

[ˈpipuʒ ˈxaiɲaxun ʒiʔ ˈʔaum]

ˈpip
black -uʒ
ACC x-
sing ˈaiɲaxun
lamb ʒiʔ
PAST ˈʔaum
love

“She loved a black lamb.”

 (12)

Compounding

Verbs

Inflectional Categories

The verbal phrase clitics in Inyagh fall into two categories, proclitics and enclitics: first, a clitic expressing negation, comprising qis /ʔis/ ‘NEG’; second, a clitic expressing mode, comprising kağ /kaɣ/ ‘imperative’, ngir /ŋiɾ/ ‘conditional’ and shkaf /ʃkaf/ ‘optative’; third, a clitic expressing ta, comprising zhiq /ʒiʔ/ ‘PAST’; fourth, a clitic expressing voice, comprising sit /sit/ ‘passive’; and finally, fifth, a clitic expressing question, comprising ngum /ŋum/ ‘Q’.

The verb itself does not have any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

The verb displays the following derivational morphology: five suffixes, namely -shu /-ʃu/ ‘begin’, -ma /-ma/ ‘stop’, -ʁi /-ʁi/ ‘continue’, -ru /-ɾu/ ‘try’ and -sa /-sa/ ‘start’

Kang qaum.

[ˈkaŋ ˈʔaum]

ˈkaŋ
2.sing ˈʔaum
love

“I love you.”

 (13)

Adverbs Minor Classes

Adpositions

There is one type of clitic in the adpositional phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing root.

stuch khochan khaʁ baz

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxot͡ʃan ˈxaʁ ˈbaz]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈot͡ʃan
table x-
sing ˈaʁ
surface ˈbaz
in

“on the table”

 (14)
stuch khizhgizhgik khaukh miñ

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxiʒɡiʒɡik ˈxaux ˈmiɲ]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈiʒɡiʒɡik
box x-
sing ˈaux
inside ˈmiɲ
to

“into the box”

 (15)
ğash sitar

[ˈɣaʃ siˈtaɾ]

ˈɣaʃ
1excl.sing siˈtaɾ
COMIT

“with me”

 (16)

Syntax

Basic Clause Structure

Constituent Order

Constituent order describes the typical arrangement of the subject (S), verb (V) and object (O) in simple declarative clauses. It is a fundamental parameter in grammatical description and forms one of the clearest ways of characterising the overall structure of a language’s clause system.

Inyagh has basic Subject–Object–Verb (SOV) word order. The subject precedes the object, and the verb appears at the end of the clause. This is one of the most frequent patterns cross-linguistically.

The following examples illustrate the basic, unmarked, constituent order in Inyagh.

Stuch khaichinih stuch khizangad zhiq ʁaq.

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxait͡ʃinih ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxizaŋad ʒiʔ ˈʁaʔ]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈait͡ʃinih
jaguar ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈizaŋad
hunter ʒiʔ
PAST ˈʁaʔ
kill

“The jaguar killed the hunter.”

 (17)
Stuch khuqachan stuch khizangad stuch khiz stuch khid zhiq zhdiz.

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxuʔat͡ʃan ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxizaŋad ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxiz ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxid ʒiʔ ˈʒdiz]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈuʔat͡ʃan
lion ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈizaŋad
hunter ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈiz
daughter ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈid
dog ʒiʔ
PAST ˈʒdiz
eat

“The lion ate the hunter’s daughter’s dog.”

 (18)

The language has a fixed constituent order, and major phrases normally appear in a predictable position in the clause. Movement for discourse reasons is highly restricted: topics and foci are expressed not by rearranging elements, but through dedicated constructions such as clefts, focus clauses or topic–comment frames. Constituents remain continuous, and both the relative order of phrases and the internal structure of each phrase are stable. As a result, significant deviations from the basic word order are ungrammatical, and discourse structure is managed through these specialised constructions rather than through word-order variation.

Noun Phrases

Structure and Order

The internal structure of noun phrases in Inyagh reveals typologically significant preferences in the ordering of nominal constituents. This includes the position of adjectives, numerals, and possessors relative to the noun, each of which can offer clues to the overall headedness of the language.

Possessive constructions are head-final: the possessor precedes the possessed noun. For example, Inyagh expresses “the child’s toy” with the equivalent of “child toy”. This ordering is found in many SOV and postpositional languages and aligns with a broader tendency towards modifier-first structures.

kang stuch khef stuch khak stuch khiʁ

[ˈkaŋ ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxef ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxak ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxiʁ]

ˈkaŋ
2.sing ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈef
son ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈak
friend ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈiʁ
book

“your son’s friend’s book”

 (19)

Case Marking

Inyagh uses nominative–accusative case marking. The subject of an intransitive verb and the subject of a transitive verb are treated alike and take the nominative case, while the object of a transitive verb is marked with the accusative case. This is the familiar pattern from many European languages: the grammar groups together the participants that function as subjects and marks the participant affected by a transitive action separately.

Stuch kheʁ ris.

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxeʁ ˈɾis]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈeʁ
cat ˈɾis
sleep

“The cat is sleeping.”

 (20)
Stuch kheʁ kin.

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxeʁ ˈkin]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈeʁ
cat ˈkin
run

“The cat is running.”

 (21)
Stuch kheʁ stuch khaujudin hasqat.

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxeʁ ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxaujudin haˈsʔat]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈeʁ
cat ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈaujudin
mouse haˈsʔat
chase

“The cat is chasing the mouse.”

 (22)
Stuch kheʁ stuch khaujudin zhiq ʁat.

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxeʁ ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxaujudin ʒiʔ ˈʁat]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈeʁ
cat ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈaujudin
mouse ʒiʔ
PAST ˈʁat
catch

“The cat caught the mouse.”

 (23)

Conjunctions

Here is an example of a conjunction.

Stuch khizangad stuch naichinih khah stuch nauchufitz khah stuch nuqachan zhiq ʁaq.

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxizaŋad ˈstut͡ʃ ˈnait͡ʃinih ˈxah ˈstut͡ʃ ˈnaut͡ʃufit͡s ˈxah ˈstut͡ʃ ˈnuʔat͡ʃan ʒiʔ ˈʁaʔ]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈizaŋad
hunter ˈstut͡ʃ
the n-
plur ˈait͡ʃinih
jaguar ˈxah
and ˈstut͡ʃ
the n-
plur ˈaut͡ʃufit͡s
tiger ˈxah
and ˈstut͡ʃ
the n-
plur ˈuʔat͡ʃan
lion ʒiʔ
PAST ˈʁaʔ
kill

“The hunter killed the jaguars, the tigers and the lions.”

 (24)

Modifiers and Determiners

The ordering of demonstratives, articles (if present), and other modifiers in Inyagh provides further insight into the structure of the noun phrase. These elements frequently exhibit fixed positions and may reveal whether the language favours head-initial or head-final patterns.

Complex Sentences

Relative Clauses

Inyagh forms relative clauses by placing them before the noun they modify. The modifier takes the form of a finite clause that precedes the head noun without any relative pronoun. The clause shows ordinary clausal structure, with the role of the head noun recoverable from the syntactic position inside the clause.

To illustrate how relative clauses work, let us begin with a simple sentence:

Stuch kheʁ zhiq tazeq.

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxeʁ ʒiʔ taˈzeʔ]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈeʁ
cat ʒiʔ
PAST taˈzeʔ
pat

“I patted the cat.”

 (25)

We can now add a relative clause modifying the noun:

Stuch khaujudin zhiq ʁat stuch kheʁ zhiq tazeq.

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxaujudin ʒiʔ ˈʁat ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxeʁ ʒiʔ taˈzeʔ]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈaujudin
mouse ʒiʔ
PAST ˈʁat
catch ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈeʁ
cat ʒiʔ
PAST taˈzeʔ
pat

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse.”

 (26)

Relative clauses may themselves contain other relative clauses:

Stuch khowigaf zhiq zhdiz stuch khaujudin zhiq ʁat stuch kheʁ zhiq tazeq.

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxowiɡaf ʒiʔ ˈʒdiz ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxaujudin ʒiʔ ˈʁat ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxeʁ ʒiʔ taˈzeʔ]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈowiɡaf
cheese ʒiʔ
PAST ˈʒdiz
eat ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈaujudin
mouse ʒiʔ
PAST ˈʁat
catch ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈeʁ
cat ʒiʔ
PAST taˈzeʔ
pat

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese.”

 (27)

Finally, here is an example containing several layers of embedding:

Ğash zhiq ter stuch khowigaf zhiq zhdiz stuch khaujudin zhiq ʁat stuch kheʁ zhiq tazeq.

[ˈɣaʃ ʒiʔ ˈteɾ ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxowiɡaf ʒiʔ ˈʒdiz ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxaujudin ʒiʔ ˈʁat ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxeʁ ʒiʔ taˈzeʔ]

ˈɣaʃ
1excl.sing ʒiʔ
PAST ˈteɾ
buy ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈowiɡaf
cheese ʒiʔ
PAST ˈʒdiz
eat ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈaujudin
mouse ʒiʔ
PAST ˈʁat
catch ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈeʁ
cat ʒiʔ
PAST taˈzeʔ
pat

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese that I bought.”

 (28)

Complementation Strategies

Inyagh forms complement clauses by nominalising the embedded verb. The nominalised form lacks finite verbal categories and behaves as a noun phrase. Subjects of nominalised clauses occur in the genitive case, and the nominalised verb establishes the semantic content of the complement.

The following example illustrate how complement clauses function:

Stuch khez stuch khang khakhufab zhiq hañ stuch khufamub zhiq bakhaik.

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxez ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxaŋ ˈxaxufab ʒiʔ ˈhaɲ ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxufamub ʒiʔ baˈxaik]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈez
boy ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈaŋ
girl x-
sing ˈaxufab
apple ʒiʔ
PAST ˈhaɲ
give ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈufamub
teacher ʒiʔ
PAST baˈxaik
surprise

“It surprised the teacher that the boy had given the girl an apple.”

 (29)

Quotes

Inyagh employs a quotative particle to mark direct and indirect speech. The quotative follows the reported phrase and identifies the preceding expression as quoted or reported. The same construction is also used to express reported thoughts.

Here is an example of how quotations are expressed:

Stuch khez stuch khang ğash kang qaum zhiq qar.

[ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxez ˈstut͡ʃ ˈxaŋ ˈɣaʃ ˈkaŋ ˈʔaum ʒiʔ ˈʔaɾ]

ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈez
boy ˈstut͡ʃ
the x-
sing ˈaŋ
girl ˈɣaʃ
1excl.sing ˈkaŋ
2.sing ˈʔaum
love ʒiʔ
PAST ˈʔaɾ
tell

“The boy told the girl that he loved her.”

 (30)

How to cite this grammar

Language Creator. 2026. A Grammar of Inyagh. Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 3 July 2026. https://languagecreator.org/grammar/5WQ9N

In BibTeX format:

@misc{LC-5WQ9N,
  year         = 2026,
  author       = {{Language Creator}},
  title        = {A Grammar of {Inyagh}},
  howpublished = {\url{https://languagecreator.org/grammar/5WQ9N}},
  note         = {Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 3 July 2026}
}

Supplementary Materials

A collection of illustrative texts and a bilingual dictionary (English–Inyagh / Inyagh–English) accompany this grammar. The complete work – comprising the grammar, dictionary and texts – may also be downloaded in ODT or DOCX format.

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