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A Grammar of Baj

Introduction

Scope and Purpose

This grammar provides a systematic description of the Baj language (the 1908th one produced by the Language Creator), outlining its sound system, word formation and syntactic structure, with the aim of presenting a coherent account of the language as an integrated whole. Attention has been paid to both regular patterns and minor irregularities, as these together define the internal balance of the language.

The grammar is accompanied by a bilingual dictionary and a collection of illustrative texts, offering material for further study and comparison. The examples have been selected to demonstrate typical constructions and to give a sense of the language in extended use. The description is intended as a reference work for linguists and language enthusiasts alike, and as a foundation for any future research, teaching or creative adaptation of Baj.

Typological Profile

It has has no interesting typological features.

Phonology

Phoneme Inventory

Consonants

Baj has a moderately large consonant inventory, with 26 phonemes.

It has an exceptionally dense sibilant inventory, a broad set of voiced–voiceless oppositions, a notably rich liquid inventory, a complete absence of laryngeal consonants and a markedly rich set of labial consonants.

The table below presents the full inventory of consonant phonemes in Baj. The chart lists all places and manners of articulation attested in the language.

labialalveolarpostalveolaralveolo-palatallateralpalatalvelar
stopp b d t k ɡ
nasalm n ɲ
trill/tap/flapɾ
fricativef s z ʃ ʒ ɕ ʑ
approximantw l j
affricatet͡s d͡ʒ t͡ʃ t͡ɕ

Vowels

Baj has 9 vowel qualities, forming a relatively large inventory. The system distinguishes several vowel categories, as indicated in the chart, offering a wide range of vocalic contrasts.

It has phonologically distinctive back unrounded vowels.

The table below presents the full inventory of vowel phonemes in Baj. The system comprises the distinct vowel qualities listed in the chart.

frontcentralback unroundedback rounded
closei ɯ u
mide ɤ o
opena

Stress and Tones

Baj has 4 lexical tones, but stress is not contrastive. Each syllable bears a lexically specified tone, and prominence is not independently marked by stress.

Phonological Processes

Vowel Harmony

Vowel harmony does not exist in this language.

Writing System

Introduction

Baj is normally written using the Latin alphabet, whose familiarity makes it straightforward for most readers. For clarity and precision, phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are also provided throughout this grammar.

Orthography

Here are the various components of the orthography:

Simple letters

a /a/b /b/d /d/e /e/
f /f/g /ɡ/i /i/j /d͡ʒ/
k /k/l /l/m /m/n /n/
o /o/p /p/r /ɾ/s /s/
t /t/u /u/w /w/y /j/
z /z/ñ /ɲ/ơ /ɤ/ư /ɯ/
ɕ /ɕ/ʑ /ʑ/

Multi-letter combinations such as digraphs

ai /ai/au /au/ch /t͡ʃ/
rr /r/sh /ʃ/ty /t͡ɕ/
tz /t͡s/zh /ʒ/

Diacritics

◌̀ /꜒꜖/◌́ /꜖꜒/◌̄ /꜒/◌̠ /꜖/

Word Classes and Morphology

Number and Gender

Number

Baj does not have grammatical number.

Gender

Baj has the following genders:

Gender masc – for instance: báj ‘Baj’, bón ‘table’, jāyơ̄w ‘umbrella’, kōza̠ch ‘slime’, kờsh ‘son’, nèjứl ‘mountain’, nóch ‘leg’, no̠shơ̠w ‘urine’, nờd ‘speech’, pi̠p ‘idea’, rrítèj ‘fog’, sójáb ‘salt’, sư̠p ‘sound’, tzób ‘road’, yāj ‘fight’, zbōwơ̠b ‘ice’, zdư̠zhbūɕ ‘faeces’, zhōn ‘water’, zhư̄p ‘knife’, ɕéʑ ‘fire’.

Gender fem – for instance: chaìty ‘stone’, chư̄b ‘sky’, chư̠ñīf ‘bosom’, dágúʑ ‘brick’, gớzớñ ‘tiger’, lèshūf ‘medicine’, paúz ‘back’, raùb ‘human being’, rrómèty ‘lion’, shtu̠yư̄z ‘school’, tyéraūch ‘market’, wàrừb ‘wing’, yázh ‘people’, zhừpi̠g ‘cloud’, ɕéwíz ‘wild boar’, ɕpífén ‘mammal’, ʑaík ‘star’, ʑbư̄yóʑ ‘fingernail’, ʑgau̠p ‘hand’, ʑúmaūb ‘teacher’.

Gender neut – for instance: bùlúk ‘tail’, chàs ‘head’, chừʑgíty ‘worm’, ga̠stư̠l ‘rope’, jèzh ‘fruit’, māɕe̠p ‘stick’, nāshừrr ‘apple’, nég ‘bed’, shơ̠za̠w ‘flower’, wàyaùɕ ‘cheese’, yòp ‘eye’, zgídớl ‘snake’, zhēñí ‘library’, zōsa̠d ‘root’, ñàw ‘foot’, ñóp ‘north’, ñu̠ ‘city’, ɕtóy ‘tree’, ɕtùstờch ‘grass’, ʑứrrơ̠y ‘belly’.

The Nominal Phrase

Nominal phrases in Baj can be exemplified by the following example:

Ka̠ty spóshúz zhgo̠chés ka̠ty zhư̄pờt zhda̠f shi̠ shpùs go̠g fōshu̠chàg jìp skāy.

[ka꜖t͡ɕ spo꜖꜒ʃu꜖꜒z ʒɡo꜖t͡ʃe꜖꜒s ka꜖t͡ɕ ʒɯ꜒pɤ꜒꜖t ʒda꜖f ʃi꜖ ʃpu꜒꜖s ɡo꜖ɡ fo꜒ʃu꜖t͡ʃa꜒꜖ɡ d͡ʒi꜒꜖p ska꜒j]

ka꜖t͡ɕ
the spo꜖꜒ʃ
woman -u꜖꜒z
fem ʒɡo꜖t͡ʃe꜖꜒s
COMIT ka꜖t͡ɕ
the ʒɯ꜒p
knife -ɤ꜒꜖t
masc ʒda꜖f
catch ʃi꜖
PAST ʃpu꜒꜖s
yon ɡo꜖ɡ
three fo꜒ʃu꜖t͡ʃ
mouse -a꜒꜖ɡ
ACC d͡ʒi꜒꜖p
blind ska꜒j
plur

“The woman with the knife caught those three blind mice.”

 (1)

In the following, we shall look at the various components in more details.

All nominal phrase clitics in Baj are enclitics (placed finally), and there are two types: a clitic expressing number, comprising skāy /ska꜒j/ ‘plur’ followed by a clitic expressing possessor, comprising ko̠zh /ko꜖ʒ/ ‘1incl.sing’, dìf /di꜒꜖f/ ‘1excl.sing’, ñás /ɲa꜖꜒s/ ‘2.sing’, ɕūj /ɕu꜒d͡ʒ/ ‘3.sing.masc’, gēg /ɡe꜒ɡ/ ‘3.sing.fem’, náñ /na꜖꜒ɲ/ ‘3.sing.neut’, pi̠b /pi꜖b/ ‘1incl.plur’, ñàsh /ɲa꜒꜖ʃ/ ‘1excl.plur’, sīs /si꜒s/ ‘2.plur’, ɕám /ɕa꜖꜒m/ ‘3.plur.masc’, ñīk /ɲi꜒k/ ‘3.plur.fem’ and ki̠ʑ /ki꜖ʑ/ ‘3.plur.neut’.

The morphology of the elements of the nominal phrase, i.e., nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns, is described below, as is the way that possession is expressed in Baj.

The Noun

The noun in Baj consists of first, the root; second, an optional suffix expressing gender, comprising -ờt /-ɤ꜒꜖t/ ‘masc’ and -úz /-u꜖꜒z/ ‘fem’; and finally, third, an optional suffix expressing case, comprising -àg /-a꜒꜖ɡ/ ‘ACC’, -íz /-i꜖꜒z/ ‘GEN’, -ày /-a꜒꜖j/ ‘DAT’, -òt /-o꜒꜖t/ ‘INS’, -ớp /-ɤ꜖꜒p/ ‘VOC’, -úʑ /-u꜖꜒ʑ/ ‘ALL’, -áj /-a꜖꜒d͡ʒ/ ‘LOC’, -ùb /-u꜒꜖b/ ‘ABL’ and -òg /-o꜒꜖ɡ/ ‘PART’.

The Adjective

The adjective in Baj stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Numerals

The numeral in Baj stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Determiners

The determiner in Baj stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Pronouns

The pronoun in Baj stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

In Baj, both subject and object pronouns are dropped unless they are stressed. Here is an example where neither of the pronouns are stressed:

Sứz.

[sɯ꜖꜒z]

sɯ꜖꜒z
love

“He (the boy) loves her (the girl).”

 (2)

But here, the word corresponding to he is stressed:

Lư̄j sứz.

[lɯ꜒d͡ʒ sɯ꜖꜒z]

lɯ꜒d͡ʒ
3.sing.masc sɯ꜖꜒z
love

“He loves her.”

 (3)

And here, it is the one translated as her that is stressed:

Sứz jìz.

[sɯ꜖꜒z d͡ʒi꜒꜖z]

sɯ꜖꜒z
love d͡ʒi꜒꜖z
3.sing.fem

“He loves her.”

 (4)

Proper Nouns

Ka̠ty Chơ̄sho̠lờt ɕérư̠g ka̠ty Zhbe̠skàkúzàg.

[ka꜖t͡ɕ t͡ʃɤ꜒ʃo꜖lɤ꜒꜖t ɕe꜖꜒ɾɯ꜖ɡ ka꜖t͡ɕ ʒbe꜖ska꜒꜖ku꜖꜒za꜒꜖ɡ]

ka꜖t͡ɕ
the t͡ʃɤ꜒ʃo꜖l
Cahshol -ɤ꜒꜖t
masc ɕe꜖꜒ɾɯ꜖ɡ
hate ka꜖t͡ɕ
the ʒbe꜖ska꜒꜖k
Zahbeskak -u꜖꜒z
fem -a꜒꜖ɡ
ACC

“Cahshol hates Zahbeskak.”

 (5)

Possession

ka̠ty nāshừrr ɕūj ka̠ty pīlờtíz

[ka꜖t͡ɕ na꜒ʃɯ꜒꜖r ɕu꜒d͡ʒ ka꜖t͡ɕ pi꜒lɤ꜒꜖ti꜖꜒z]

ka꜖t͡ɕ
the na꜒ʃɯ꜒꜖r
apple ɕu꜒d͡ʒ
3.sing.masc.POSS ka꜖t͡ɕ
the pi꜒l
boy -ɤ꜒꜖t
masc -i꜖꜒z
GEN

“the boy’s apple”

 (6)
ka̠ty nāshừrr ɕūj lư̄j

[ka꜖t͡ɕ na꜒ʃɯ꜒꜖r ɕu꜒d͡ʒ lɯ꜒d͡ʒ]

ka꜖t͡ɕ
the na꜒ʃɯ꜒꜖r
apple ɕu꜒d͡ʒ
3.sing.masc.POSS lɯ꜒d͡ʒ
3.sing.masc

“his (the boy’s) apple”

 (7)
ka̠ty nāshừrr dìf

[ka꜖t͡ɕ na꜒ʃɯ꜒꜖r di꜒꜖f]

ka꜖t͡ɕ
the na꜒ʃɯ꜒꜖r
apple di꜒꜖f
1excl.sing.POSS

“my apple”

 (8)
Ka̠ty dơ̄wúz ɕūj ka̠ty tzóshtaíkờtíz zhgớgíw shi̠ ka̠ty kờshờtàg náñ ka̠ty zứshtừjíz ñás.

[ka꜖t͡ɕ dɤ꜒wu꜖꜒z ɕu꜒d͡ʒ ka꜖t͡ɕ t͡so꜖꜒ʃtai꜖꜒kɤ꜒꜖ti꜖꜒z ʒɡɤ꜖꜒ɡi꜖꜒w ʃi꜖ ka꜖t͡ɕ kɤ꜒꜖ʃɤ꜒꜖ta꜒꜖ɡ na꜖꜒ɲ ka꜖t͡ɕ zɯ꜖꜒ʃtɯ꜒꜖d͡ʒi꜖꜒z ɲa꜖꜒s]

ka꜖t͡ɕ
the dɤ꜒w
daughter -u꜖꜒z
fem ɕu꜒d͡ʒ
3.sing.masc.POSS ka꜖t͡ɕ
the t͡so꜖꜒ʃtai꜖꜒k
hunter -ɤ꜒꜖t
masc -i꜖꜒z
GEN ʒɡɤ꜖꜒ɡi꜖꜒w
kiss ʃi꜖
PAST ka꜖t͡ɕ
the kɤ꜒꜖ʃ
son -ɤ꜒꜖t
masc -a꜒꜖ɡ
ACC na꜖꜒ɲ
3.sing.neut.POSS ka꜖t͡ɕ
the zɯ꜖꜒ʃtɯ꜒꜖d͡ʒ
neighbour -i꜖꜒z
GEN ɲa꜖꜒s
2.sing.POSS

“The hunter’s daughter kissed your neighbour’s son.”

 (9)

Derivation

Baj has no derivational processes.

tìl dúzhdaítyúz

[ti꜒꜖l du꜖꜒ʒdai꜖꜒t͡ɕu꜖꜒z]

ti꜒꜖l
a du꜖꜒ʒdai꜖꜒t͡ɕ
lamb -u꜖꜒z
fem

“a lamb”

 (10)

Note how none show up here:

Wìj shi̠ mờɕ shi̠ tìl dúzhdaítyúzàg zgīt tzāsásh.

[wi꜒꜖d͡ʒ ʃi꜖ mɤ꜒꜖ɕ ʃi꜖ ti꜒꜖l du꜖꜒ʒdai꜖꜒t͡ɕu꜖꜒za꜒꜖ɡ zɡi꜒t t͡sa꜒sa꜖꜒ʃ]

wi꜒꜖d͡ʒ
want ʃi꜖
PAST mɤ꜒꜖ɕ
have ʃi꜖
PAST ti꜒꜖l
a du꜖꜒ʒdai꜖꜒t͡ɕ
lamb -u꜖꜒z
fem -a꜒꜖ɡ
ACC zɡi꜒t
little t͡sa꜒sa꜖꜒ʃ
COMP

“She wanted to have a little lamb.”

 (11)

Compounding

Verbs

Inflectional Categories

All verbal phrase clitics in Baj are enclitics (placed finally), and there are three types: first, a clitic expressing ta, comprising shi̠ /ʃi꜖/ ‘PAST’; second, a clitic expressing mode, comprising zdo̠j /zdo꜖d͡ʒ/ ‘imperative’, gò /ɡo꜒꜖/ ‘conditional’ and tớzh /tɤ꜖꜒ʒ/ ‘optative’; and finally, third, a clitic expressing negation, comprising cha̠sh /t͡ʃa꜖ʃ/ ‘NEG’.

In addition, the verb is structured like this: the root followed by an optional suffix expressing voice, comprising -àch /-a꜒꜖t͡ʃ/ ‘passive’.

Sứz.

[sɯ꜖꜒z]

sɯ꜖꜒z
love

“I love you.”

 (12)

Adverbs Minor Classes

Adpositions

There is one type of clitic in the adpositional phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing root.

baūt ka̠ty bónờt

[bau꜒t ka꜖t͡ɕ bo꜖꜒nɤ꜒꜖t]

bau꜒t
in_surface ka꜖t͡ɕ
the bo꜖꜒n
table -ɤ꜒꜖t
masc

“on the table”

 (13)
waìw ka̠ty ʑúʑūtyờt

[wai꜒꜖w ka꜖t͡ɕ ʑu꜖꜒ʑu꜒t͡ɕɤ꜒꜖t]

wai꜒꜖w
to_inside ka꜖t͡ɕ
the ʑu꜖꜒ʑu꜒t͡ɕ
box -ɤ꜒꜖t
masc

“into the box”

 (14)
zhgo̠chés zhgai̠k

[ʒɡo꜖t͡ʃe꜖꜒s ʒɡai꜖k]

ʒɡo꜖t͡ʃe꜖꜒s
COMIT ʒɡai꜖k
1excl.sing

“with me”

 (15)

Syntax

Basic Clause Structure

Constituent Order

Constituent order describes the typical arrangement of the subject (S), verb (V) and object (O) in simple declarative clauses. It is a fundamental parameter in grammatical description and forms one of the clearest ways of characterising the overall structure of a language’s clause system.

Baj employs Subject–Verb–Object (SVO) as its basic word order. The subject is followed by the verb, with the object occurring in post-verbal position. This ordering is widely attested across the world’s languages.

The following examples illustrate the basic, unmarked, constituent order in Baj.

Ka̠ty dơ̄jàzhúz tyūb shi̠ ka̠ty tzóshtaíkờtàg.

[ka꜖t͡ɕ dɤ꜒d͡ʒa꜒꜖ʒu꜖꜒z t͡ɕu꜒b ʃi꜖ ka꜖t͡ɕ t͡so꜖꜒ʃtai꜖꜒kɤ꜒꜖ta꜒꜖ɡ]

ka꜖t͡ɕ
the dɤ꜒d͡ʒa꜒꜖ʒ
jaguar -u꜖꜒z
fem t͡ɕu꜒b
kill ʃi꜖
PAST ka꜖t͡ɕ
the t͡so꜖꜒ʃtai꜖꜒k
hunter -ɤ꜒꜖t
masc -a꜒꜖ɡ
ACC

“The jaguar killed the hunter.”

 (16)
Ka̠ty rrómètyúz ɕi̠ɕ shi̠ ka̠ty fèmúzàg gēg ka̠ty dơ̄wúzíz ɕūj ka̠ty tzóshtaíkờtíz.

[ka꜖t͡ɕ ro꜖꜒me꜒꜖t͡ɕu꜖꜒z ɕi꜖ɕ ʃi꜖ ka꜖t͡ɕ fe꜒꜖mu꜖꜒za꜒꜖ɡ ɡe꜒ɡ ka꜖t͡ɕ dɤ꜒wu꜖꜒zi꜖꜒z ɕu꜒d͡ʒ ka꜖t͡ɕ t͡so꜖꜒ʃtai꜖꜒kɤ꜒꜖ti꜖꜒z]

ka꜖t͡ɕ
the ro꜖꜒me꜒꜖t͡ɕ
lion -u꜖꜒z
fem ɕi꜖ɕ
eat ʃi꜖
PAST ka꜖t͡ɕ
the fe꜒꜖m
dog -u꜖꜒z
fem -a꜒꜖ɡ
ACC ɡe꜒ɡ
3.sing.fem.POSS ka꜖t͡ɕ
the dɤ꜒w
daughter -u꜖꜒z
fem -i꜖꜒z
GEN ɕu꜒d͡ʒ
3.sing.masc.POSS ka꜖t͡ɕ
the t͡so꜖꜒ʃtai꜖꜒k
hunter -ɤ꜒꜖t
masc -i꜖꜒z
GEN

“The lion ate the hunter’s daughter’s dog.”

 (17)

The language has a fixed constituent order, and major phrases normally appear in a predictable position in the clause. Movement for discourse reasons is highly restricted: topics and foci are expressed not by rearranging elements, but through dedicated constructions such as clefts, focus clauses or topic–comment frames. Constituents remain continuous, and both the relative order of phrases and the internal structure of each phrase are stable. As a result, significant deviations from the basic word order are ungrammatical, and discourse structure is managed through these specialised constructions rather than through word-order variation.

Noun Phrases

Structure and Order

The internal structure of noun phrases in Baj reveals typologically significant preferences in the ordering of nominal constituents. This includes the position of adjectives, numerals, and possessors relative to the noun, each of which can offer clues to the overall headedness of the language.

Possessive constructions are head-initial: the possessed noun precedes the possessor. For instance, Baj expresses “the child’s toy” with the equivalent of “toy child”. This structure is typologically rarer and often co-occurs with verb-initial syntax or with grammatical marking on the noun.

ka̠ty pāɕúz náñ ka̠ty mítzíz ɕūj ka̠ty kờshờtíz ñás

[ka꜖t͡ɕ pa꜒ɕu꜖꜒z na꜖꜒ɲ ka꜖t͡ɕ mi꜖꜒t͡si꜖꜒z ɕu꜒d͡ʒ ka꜖t͡ɕ kɤ꜒꜖ʃɤ꜒꜖ti꜖꜒z ɲa꜖꜒s]

ka꜖t͡ɕ
the pa꜒ɕ
book -u꜖꜒z
fem na꜖꜒ɲ
3.sing.neut.POSS ka꜖t͡ɕ
the mi꜖꜒t͡s
friend -i꜖꜒z
GEN ɕu꜒d͡ʒ
3.sing.masc.POSS ka꜖t͡ɕ
the kɤ꜒꜖ʃ
son -ɤ꜒꜖t
masc -i꜖꜒z
GEN ɲa꜖꜒s
2.sing.POSS

“your son’s friend’s book”

 (18)

Case Marking

Baj uses nominative–accusative case marking. The subject of an intransitive verb and the subject of a transitive verb are treated alike and take the nominative case, while the object of a transitive verb is marked with the accusative case. This is the familiar pattern from many European languages: the grammar groups together the participants that function as subjects and marks the participant affected by a transitive action separately.

Ka̠ty nơ̠shúz mớʑ.

[ka꜖t͡ɕ nɤ꜖ʃu꜖꜒z mɤ꜖꜒ʑ]

ka꜖t͡ɕ
the nɤ꜖ʃ
cat -u꜖꜒z
fem mɤ꜖꜒ʑ
sleep

“The cat is sleeping.”

 (19)
Ka̠ty nơ̠shúz ɕōzh.

[ka꜖t͡ɕ nɤ꜖ʃu꜖꜒z ɕo꜒ʒ]

ka꜖t͡ɕ
the nɤ꜖ʃ
cat -u꜖꜒z
fem ɕo꜒ʒ
run

“The cat is running.”

 (20)
Ka̠ty nơ̠shúz tzéɕéw ka̠ty fōshu̠chàg.

[ka꜖t͡ɕ nɤ꜖ʃu꜖꜒z t͡se꜖꜒ɕe꜖꜒w ka꜖t͡ɕ fo꜒ʃu꜖t͡ʃa꜒꜖ɡ]

ka꜖t͡ɕ
the nɤ꜖ʃ
cat -u꜖꜒z
fem t͡se꜖꜒ɕe꜖꜒w
chase ka꜖t͡ɕ
the fo꜒ʃu꜖t͡ʃ
mouse -a꜒꜖ɡ
ACC

“The cat is chasing the mouse.”

 (21)
Ka̠ty nơ̠shúz zhda̠f shi̠ ka̠ty fōshu̠chàg.

[ka꜖t͡ɕ nɤ꜖ʃu꜖꜒z ʒda꜖f ʃi꜖ ka꜖t͡ɕ fo꜒ʃu꜖t͡ʃa꜒꜖ɡ]

ka꜖t͡ɕ
the nɤ꜖ʃ
cat -u꜖꜒z
fem ʒda꜖f
catch ʃi꜖
PAST ka꜖t͡ɕ
the fo꜒ʃu꜖t͡ʃ
mouse -a꜒꜖ɡ
ACC

“The cat caught the mouse.”

 (22)

Conjunctions

Here is an example of a conjunction.

Ka̠ty tzóshtaíkờt tyūb shi̠ ka̠ty dơ̄jàzhúzàg skāy di̠ʑ ka̠ty gớzớñúzàg skāy di̠ʑ ka̠ty rrómètyúzàg skāy.

[ka꜖t͡ɕ t͡so꜖꜒ʃtai꜖꜒kɤ꜒꜖t t͡ɕu꜒b ʃi꜖ ka꜖t͡ɕ dɤ꜒d͡ʒa꜒꜖ʒu꜖꜒za꜒꜖ɡ ska꜒j di꜖ʑ ka꜖t͡ɕ ɡɤ꜖꜒zɤ꜖꜒ɲu꜖꜒za꜒꜖ɡ ska꜒j di꜖ʑ ka꜖t͡ɕ ro꜖꜒me꜒꜖t͡ɕu꜖꜒za꜒꜖ɡ ska꜒j]

ka꜖t͡ɕ
the t͡so꜖꜒ʃtai꜖꜒k
hunter -ɤ꜒꜖t
masc t͡ɕu꜒b
kill ʃi꜖
PAST ka꜖t͡ɕ
the dɤ꜒d͡ʒa꜒꜖ʒ
jaguar -u꜖꜒z
fem -a꜒꜖ɡ
ACC ska꜒j
plur di꜖ʑ
and ka꜖t͡ɕ
the ɡɤ꜖꜒zɤ꜖꜒ɲ
tiger -u꜖꜒z
fem -a꜒꜖ɡ
ACC ska꜒j
plur di꜖ʑ
and ka꜖t͡ɕ
the ro꜖꜒me꜒꜖t͡ɕ
lion -u꜖꜒z
fem -a꜒꜖ɡ
ACC ska꜒j
plur

“The hunter killed the jaguars, the tigers and the lions.”

 (23)

Modifiers and Determiners

The ordering of demonstratives, articles (if present), and other modifiers in Baj provides further insight into the structure of the noun phrase. These elements frequently exhibit fixed positions and may reveal whether the language favours head-initial or head-final patterns.

Complex Sentences

Relative Clauses

Baj forms relative clauses by placing the relative clause after the noun it modifies. The clause follows the internal word order of ordinary finite clauses. A dedicated relativising marker introduces the clause and identifies the relationship between the head noun and its role inside the relative clause.

To illustrate how relative clauses work, let us begin with a simple sentence:

Māstaīw shi̠ ka̠ty nơ̠shúzàg.

[ma꜒stai꜒w ʃi꜖ ka꜖t͡ɕ nɤ꜖ʃu꜖꜒za꜒꜖ɡ]

ma꜒stai꜒w
pat ʃi꜖
PAST ka꜖t͡ɕ
the nɤ꜖ʃ
cat -u꜖꜒z
fem -a꜒꜖ɡ
ACC

“I patted the cat.”

 (24)

We can now add a relative clause modifying the noun:

Māstaīw shi̠ ka̠ty nơ̠shúz, dờk zhda̠f shi̠ ka̠ty fōshu̠chàg.

[ma꜒stai꜒w ʃi꜖ ka꜖t͡ɕ nɤ꜖ʃu꜖꜒z, dɤ꜒꜖k ʒda꜖f ʃi꜖ ka꜖t͡ɕ fo꜒ʃu꜖t͡ʃa꜒꜖ɡ]

ma꜒stai꜒w
pat ʃi꜖
PAST ka꜖t͡ɕ
the nɤ꜖ʃ
cat -u꜖꜒z
fem dɤ꜒꜖k
RELPRON ʒda꜖f
catch ʃi꜖
PAST ka꜖t͡ɕ
the fo꜒ʃu꜖t͡ʃ
mouse -a꜒꜖ɡ
ACC

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse.”

 (25)

Relative clauses may themselves contain other relative clauses:

Māstaīw shi̠ ka̠ty nơ̠shúz, dờk zhda̠f shi̠ ka̠ty fōshu̠ch, dờk ɕi̠ɕ shi̠ ka̠ty wàyaùɕàg.

[ma꜒stai꜒w ʃi꜖ ka꜖t͡ɕ nɤ꜖ʃu꜖꜒z, dɤ꜒꜖k ʒda꜖f ʃi꜖ ka꜖t͡ɕ fo꜒ʃu꜖t͡ʃ, dɤ꜒꜖k ɕi꜖ɕ ʃi꜖ ka꜖t͡ɕ wa꜒꜖jau꜒꜖ɕa꜒꜖ɡ]

ma꜒stai꜒w
pat ʃi꜖
PAST ka꜖t͡ɕ
the nɤ꜖ʃ
cat -u꜖꜒z
fem dɤ꜒꜖k
RELPRON ʒda꜖f
catch ʃi꜖
PAST ka꜖t͡ɕ
the fo꜒ʃu꜖t͡ʃ
mouse dɤ꜒꜖k
RELPRON ɕi꜖ɕ
eat ʃi꜖
PAST ka꜖t͡ɕ
the wa꜒꜖jau꜒꜖ɕ
cheese -a꜒꜖ɡ
ACC

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese.”

 (26)

Finally, here is an example containing several layers of embedding:

Māstaīw shi̠ ka̠ty nơ̠shúz, dờk zhda̠f shi̠ ka̠ty fōshu̠ch, dờk ɕi̠ɕ shi̠ ka̠ty wàyaùɕ, dờk taūʑ shi̠ zhgai̠k.

[ma꜒stai꜒w ʃi꜖ ka꜖t͡ɕ nɤ꜖ʃu꜖꜒z, dɤ꜒꜖k ʒda꜖f ʃi꜖ ka꜖t͡ɕ fo꜒ʃu꜖t͡ʃ, dɤ꜒꜖k ɕi꜖ɕ ʃi꜖ ka꜖t͡ɕ wa꜒꜖jau꜒꜖ɕ, dɤ꜒꜖k tau꜒ʑ ʃi꜖ ʒɡai꜖k]

ma꜒stai꜒w
pat ʃi꜖
PAST ka꜖t͡ɕ
the nɤ꜖ʃ
cat -u꜖꜒z
fem dɤ꜒꜖k
RELPRON ʒda꜖f
catch ʃi꜖
PAST ka꜖t͡ɕ
the fo꜒ʃu꜖t͡ʃ
mouse dɤ꜒꜖k
RELPRON ɕi꜖ɕ
eat ʃi꜖
PAST ka꜖t͡ɕ
the wa꜒꜖jau꜒꜖ɕ
cheese dɤ꜒꜖k
RELPRON tau꜒ʑ
buy ʃi꜖
PAST ʒɡai꜖k
1excl.sing

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese that I bought.”

 (27)

Complementation Strategies

Baj introduces complement clauses with a dedicated complementiser, similar to English that. The complementiser appears at the beginning of the embedded clause and signals that the clause functions as a syntactic argument. The embedded clause is fully finite and displays the same tense, aspect and agreement patterns as independent clauses.

The following example illustrate how complement clauses function:

Ka̠ty pīlờt zai̠ñ shi̠ ka̠ty yōtúzày tìl nāshừrràg tzāsásh rư̠jừsh shi̠ ka̠ty ʑúmaūbúzày.

[ka꜖t͡ɕ pi꜒lɤ꜒꜖t zai꜖ɲ ʃi꜖ ka꜖t͡ɕ jo꜒tu꜖꜒za꜒꜖j ti꜒꜖l na꜒ʃɯ꜒꜖ra꜒꜖ɡ t͡sa꜒sa꜖꜒ʃ ɾɯ꜖d͡ʒɯ꜒꜖ʃ ʃi꜖ ka꜖t͡ɕ ʑu꜖꜒mau꜒bu꜖꜒za꜒꜖j]

ka꜖t͡ɕ
the pi꜒l
boy -ɤ꜒꜖t
masc zai꜖ɲ
give ʃi꜖
PAST ka꜖t͡ɕ
the jo꜒t
girl -u꜖꜒z
fem -a꜒꜖j
DAT ti꜒꜖l
a na꜒ʃɯ꜒꜖r
apple -a꜒꜖ɡ
ACC t͡sa꜒sa꜖꜒ʃ
COMP ɾɯ꜖d͡ʒɯ꜒꜖ʃ
surprise ʃi꜖
PAST ka꜖t͡ɕ
the ʑu꜖꜒mau꜒b
teacher -u꜖꜒z
fem -a꜒꜖j
DAT

“It surprised the teacher that the boy had given the girl an apple.”

 (28)

Quotes

Baj expresses quoted or reported speech without a dedicated quotative particle. Quotations appear as ordinary clauses, distinguished only by the surrounding syntactic context or by the use of verbs of speaking.

Here is an example of how quotations are expressed:

Ka̠ty pīlờt wēch shi̠ ka̠ty yōtúzày zhgai̠k sứz fu̠l tzāsásh.

[ka꜖t͡ɕ pi꜒lɤ꜒꜖t we꜒t͡ʃ ʃi꜖ ka꜖t͡ɕ jo꜒tu꜖꜒za꜒꜖j ʒɡai꜖k sɯ꜖꜒z fu꜖l t͡sa꜒sa꜖꜒ʃ]

ka꜖t͡ɕ
the pi꜒l
boy -ɤ꜒꜖t
masc we꜒t͡ʃ
tell ʃi꜖
PAST ka꜖t͡ɕ
the jo꜒t
girl -u꜖꜒z
fem -a꜒꜖j
DAT ʒɡai꜖k
1excl.sing sɯ꜖꜒z
love fu꜖l
2.sing t͡sa꜒sa꜖꜒ʃ
COMP

“The boy told the girl that he loved her.”

 (29)

How to cite this grammar

Language Creator. 2026. A Grammar of Baj. Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 24 October 2026. https://languagecreator.org/grammar/6A1V6

In BibTeX format:

@misc{LC-6A1V6,
  year         = 2026,
  author       = {{Language Creator}},
  title        = {A Grammar of {Baj}},
  howpublished = {\url{https://languagecreator.org/grammar/6A1V6}},
  note         = {Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 24 October 2026}
}

Supplementary Materials

A collection of illustrative texts and a bilingual dictionary (English–Baj / Baj–English) accompany this grammar. The complete work – comprising the grammar, dictionary and texts – may also be downloaded in ODT or DOCX format.

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https://languagecreator.org/grammar/6A1V6

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