A Grammar of Dlar

Introduction

Scope and Purpose

This grammar provides a systematic description of the Dlar language (the 1037th one produced by the Language Creator), outlining its sound system, word formation and syntactic structure, with the aim of presenting a coherent account of the language as an integrated whole. Attention has been paid to both regular patterns and minor irregularities, as these together define the internal balance of the language.

The grammar is accompanied by a bilingual dictionary and a collection of illustrative texts, offering material for further study and comparison. The examples have been selected to demonstrate typical constructions and to give a sense of the language in extended use. The description is intended as a reference work for linguists and language enthusiasts alike, and as a foundation for any future research, teaching or creative adaptation of Dlar.

Typological Profile

It has a highly marked collection of glottal, uvular, pharyngeal or epiglottal contrasts, a full set of ejective articulations, a richly elaborated system of click consonants, proper polysynthesis and a rich system of noun classes.

Phonology

Phoneme Inventory

Consonants

Dlar has an astonishing 322 consonant phonemes, exceeding any consonant system known to the author. The inventory is remarkably extensive.

It has a maximally developed dental–alveolar opposition, a richly developed retroflex subsystem, an extensive and fully contrastive palatal series, a highly marked collection of glottal, uvular, pharyngeal or epiglottal contrasts and an exceptionally large and contrastive set of fricatives.

The table below presents the full inventory of consonant phonemes in Dlar. The chart lists all places and manners of articulation attested in the language.

vel. labialpal. labialphar. labialvel. dentalpal. dentallab. dentalphar. dentalvel. alveolarpal. alveolarlab. alveolarphar. alveolarpostalveolarvel. postalveolarpal. postalveolarvel. lateralpal. lateralpalatalvel. retroflexpal. retroflexvel. velarpal. velarlab. velarphar. velarvel. uvularpal. uvularlab. uvularphar. uvularvel. pharyngealpal. pharyngealvel. epiglottalpal. epiglottalglottal
stoppˠ bˠ pʲ bʲ pˤ bˤ dˠ tˠ dʲ tʲ dʷ tʷ dˤ tˤ ɖˠ ʈˠ ɖʲ ʈʲ kˠ ɡˠ kʲ ɡʲ kʷ ɡʷ kˤ ɡˤ qˠ ɢˠ qʲ ɢʲ qʷ ɢʷ qˤ ɢˤ ʡˠ ʡʲ ʔ
aspirated stoppʰˠ pʰʲ pʰˤ tʰˠ tʰʲ tʰʷ tʰˤ ʈʰˠ ʈʰʲ kʰˠ kʰʲ kʰʷ kʰˤ
preaspirated stophpˠ hpʲ hpˤ htˠ htʲ htʷ htˤ hʈˠ hʈʲ hkˠ hkʲ hkʷ hkˤ
breathy stopbʱˠ bʱʲ bʱˤ dʱˠ dʱʲ dʱʷ dʱˤ ɖʱˠ ɖʱʲ ɡʱˠ ɡʱʲ ɡʱʷ ɡʱˤ
ejective stoppˠʼ pʲʼ pˤʼ tˠʼ tʲʼ tʷʼ tˤʼ ʈˠʼ ʈʲʼ kˠʼ kʲʼ kʷʼ kˤʼ qˠʼ qʲʼ qʷʼ qˤʼ
nasalmˠ m̥ˠ mʲ m̥ʲ mˤ m̥ˤ nˠ n̥ˠ nʲ n̥ʲ nʷ n̥ʷ nˤ n̥ˤ ɳˠ ɳ̥ˠ ɳʲ ɳ̥ʲ ŋˠ ŋ̥ˠ ŋʲ ŋ̥ʲ ŋʷ ŋ̥ʷ ŋˤ ŋ̥ˤ ɴˠ ɴʲ ɴʷ ɴˤ
trill/tap/flapr̥ˠ ɾˠ r̥ʲ ɾʲ r̥ʷ ɾʷ r̥ˤ ɾˤ ɺˠ ɺʲ ɽˠ ɽʲ ʜˠ ʜʲ
fricativeɸˠ βˠ ɸʲ βʲ ɸˤ βˤ ðˠ θˠ ðʲ θʲ ðʷ θʷ ðˤ θˤ sˠ zˠ sʲ zʲ sʷ zʷ sˤ zˤ ʃˠ ʒˠ ʃʲ ʒʲ ɬˠ ɮˠ ɬʲ ɮʲ ʂˠ ʐˠ ʂʲ ʐʲ xˠ ɣˠ xʲ ɣʲ xʷ ɣʷ xˤ ɣˤ ʁˠ χˠ ʁʲ χʲ ʁʷ χʷ ʁˤ χˤ ħˠ ʕˠ ħʲ ʕʲ h ɦ
approximantʋˠ ʋʲ ʋˤ ɹˠ ɹʲ ɹʷ ɹˤ ɭˠ ɭʲ j ɻˠ ɻʲ ɰˠ ɰʲ ɰʷ ɰˤ
affricatep͡fˠ p͡fʲ p͡fˤ d͡zˠ t͡sˠ d͡zʲ t͡sʲ d͡zʷ t͡sʷ d͡zˤ t͡sˤ d͡ʒ t͡ʃ tɬˠ tɬʲ d͡ʐˠ t͡ʂˠ d͡ʐʲ t͡ʂʲ k͡xˠ k͡xʲ k͡xʷ k͡xˤ q͡χˠ q͡χʲ q͡χʷ q͡χˤ
implosiveɓˠ ɓʲ ɓˤ ɗˠ ɗʲ ɗʷ ɗˤ ʄˠ ʄʲ ɠˠ ɠʲ ɠʷ ɠˤ ʛˠ ʛʲ ʛʷ ʛˤ
clickᵏǀˠ ᵏǀʰˠ ᵏǀʲ ᵏǀʰʲ ᵏǀʷ ᵏǀʰʷ ᵏǀˤ ᵏǀʰˤ ᵏǃˠ ᵏǃʰˠ ᵏǃʲ ᵏǃʰʲ ᵏǃʷ ᵏǃʰʷ ᵏǃˤ ᵏǃʰˤ ᵏǁˠ ᵏǁʰˠ ᵏǁʲ ᵏǁʰʲ
ejective clickᵏǀˠʼ ᵏǀʲʼ ᵏǀʷʼ ᵏǀˤʼ ᵏǃˠʼ ᵏǃʲʼ ᵏǃʷʼ ᵏǃˤʼ ᵏǁˠʼ ᵏǁʲʼ
click, nasalᵑǀˠ ᵑǀʲ ᵑǀʷ ᵑǀˤ ᵑǃˠ ᵑǃʲ ᵑǃʷ ᵑǃˤ ᵑǁˠ ᵑǁʲ
ejective click, nasalᵑǀˠʼ ᵑǀʲʼ ᵑǀʷʼ ᵑǀˤʼ ᵑǃˠʼ ᵑǃʲʼ ᵑǃʷʼ ᵑǃˤʼ ᵑǁˠʼ ᵑǁʲʼ

Vowels

Dlar has more than 14 vowel qualities. This constitutes an exceptionally rich vowel inventory, with numerous distinct categories represented in the chart.

It has a fully developed system of nasal vowels matching the oral height distinctions, a fully contrastive long–short vowel distinction across the system, a highly marked system where syllables may lack audible vowels entirely, a maximally “square” vowel system balancing heights across backness and a full range of vowel qualities even in reduced syllables.

The table below presents the full inventory of vowel phonemes in Dlar. The system comprises the distinct vowel qualities listed in the chart.

frontcentralback
closei ĩ ɨ ɨ̃ u ũ
close-mide ẽ ɘ ɘ̃ o õ
open-midɛ ɛ̃ ɜ ɜ̃ ɔ ɔ̃
opena ã

Stress and Tones

Dlar has phonemic stress and 6 lexical tones. Each lexical item carries a tonal specification associated with the first vowel of the root, which determines the overall tonal contour of the word.

Phonological Processes

Vowel Harmony

The language employs vowel harmony. To be specific, the following vowels change to match the first vowel of the root: /i/ becomes /i#/, /u/ becomes /u#/, /ɨ/ becomes /ɨ#/, /e/ becomes /e#/, /o/ becomes /o#/, /ɘ/ becomes /ɘ#/, /ɛ/ becomes /ɛ#/, /ɔ/ becomes /ɔ#/, /ɜ/ becomes /ɜ#/, /a/ becomes /a#/.

Writing System

Introduction

Dlar is normally written using the Latin alphabet, whose familiarity makes it straightforward for most readers. For clarity and precision, phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are also provided throughout this grammar.

Orthography

Here are the various components of the orthography:

Simple letters

a /a/ḅ /bˤ/c̣ /ᵏǀˤ/ḍ /dˤ/
e /e/f̣ /fˤ/g̣ /ɡˤ/h /h/
i /i/j /d͡ʒ/ḳ /kˤ/ṃ /mˤ/
ṇ /nˤ/o /ɔ/p̣ /pˤ/q /ʔ/
q̣ /qˤ/ṛ /ɾˤ/r̥̣ /r̥ˤ/ṣ /sˤ/
ṭ /tˤ/u /u/ṿ /vˤ/ẉ /ʋˤ/
y /j/ẓ /zˤ/æ /ɛ/è /ɜ/
ë /ɘ/ï /ɨ/ð̣ /ðˤ/ó /o/
þ̣ /θˤ/ğ̣ /ɣˤ/ṇ́ /n̥ˤ/ŋ̥̣ /ŋ̥ˤ/
ṛ́ /rˤ/ɥ̣ /ɥˤ/ɦ /ɦ/ɴ̣ /ɴˤ/
ɸ̣ /ɸˤ/ɹ̣ /ɹˤ/ʁ̣ /ʁˤ/ʛ̣ /ʛˤ/
β̣ /βˤ/χ̣ /χˤ/ṕ̣ /p͡fˤ/ẉ̈ /ɰˤ/

Multi-letter combinations such as digraphs

aa /aː/ai /ai/an /ã/
anan /ãː/au /au/bbi /ɓʲ/
bbo /ɓˠ/bḅ /ɓˤ/bhi /bʱʲ/
bho /bʱˠ/bḥ /bʱˤ/bi /bʲ/
bo /bˠ/bpi /pʼʲ/bpo /pʼˠ/
bp̣ /pʼˤ/chi /ᵏǀʰʲ/cho /ᵏǀʰˠ/
chw /ᵏǀʰʷ/cḥ /ᵏǀʰˤ/ci /ᵏǀʲ/
co /ᵏǀˠ/cw /ᵏǀʷ/ddi /ɗʲ/
ddo /ɗˠ/ddw /ɗʷ/dḍ /ɗˤ/
dhi /dʱʲ/dho /dʱˠ/dhw /dʱʷ/
dḥ /dʱˤ/di /dʲ/dj /t͡ʃ/
do /dˠ/dti /tʼʲ/dto /tʼˠ/
dtw /tʼʷ/dṭ /tʼˤ/dw /dʷ/
dzi /d͡zʲ/dzo /d͡zˠ/dzw /d͡zʷ/
dẓ /d͡zˤ/d͡ʐi /d͡ʐʲ/d͡ʐo /d͡ʐˠ/
ee /eː/en /ẽ/enen /ẽː/
fi /fʲ/fo /fˠ/ggi /ɠʲ/
ggo /ɠˠ/ggw /ɠʷ/gg̣ /ɠˤ/
ghi /ɡʱʲ/gho /ɡʱˠ/ghw /ɡʱʷ/
gḥ /ɡʱˤ/gi /ɡʲ/gki /kʼʲ/
gko /kʼˠ/gḳ /kʼˤ/go /ɡˠ/
gqi /qʼʲ/gqo /qʼˠ/gqu /kʼʷ/
gqw /qʼʷ/gq̣ /qʼˤ/gw /ɡʷ/
għi /ʕʲ/għo /ʕˠ/hki /hkʲ/
hko /hkˠ/hkw /hkʷ/hḳ /hkˤ/
hli /ɬʲ/hlo /ɬˠ/hmi /m̥ʲ/
hmo /m̥ˠ/hṃ /m̥ˤ/hpi /hpʲ/
hpo /hpˠ/hp̣ /hpˤ/hti /htʲ/
hto /htˠ/htw /htʷ/hṭ /htˤ/
hʈi /hʈʲ/hʈo /hʈˠ/ii /iː/
in /ĩ/inin /ĩː/jji /ʄʲ/
jjo /ʄˠ/khi /kʰʲ/kho /kʰˠ/
khw /xʷ/kḥ /kʰˤ/ki /kʲ/
ko /kˠ/kxi /k͡xʲ/kxo /k͡xˠ/
kxw /k͡xʷ/kx̣ /k͡xˤ/li /lʲ/
lo /lˠ/mi /mʲ/mo /mˠ/
nci /ᵑǀʲ/nco /ᵑǀˠ/ncw /ᵑǀʷ/
nc̣ /ᵑǀˤ/ngi /ŋʲ/ngo /ŋˠ/
ngw /ŋʷ/ng̣ /ŋˤ/ni /nʲ/
no /nˠ/nqi /ᵑǃʲ/nqo /ᵑǃˠ/
nqw /ᵑǃʷ/nq̣ /ᵑǃˤ/nw /nʷ/
nxi /ᵑǁʲ/nxo /ᵑǁˠ/on /ɔ̃/
onon /ɔ̃ː/oo /ɔː/phi /pʰʲ/
pho /pʰˠ/pḥ /pʰˤ/pi /pʲ/
po /pˠ/qhi /ᵏǃʰʲ/qho /ᵏǃʰˠ/
qhw /ᵏǃʰʷ/qḥ /ᵏǃʰˤ/qi /qʲ/
qo /qˠ/qqhi /q͡χʲ/qqho /q͡χˠ/
qqhw /q͡χʷ/qqḥ /q͡χˤ/qu /kʷ/
quh /kʰʷ/qw /qʷ/rdhi /ɖʱʲ/
rdho /ɖʱˠ/rdi /ɖʲ/rdo /ɖˠ/
ri /ɾʲ/rni /ɳʲ/rno /ɳˠ/
ro /ɾˠ/rri /ɽʲ/rro /ɽˠ/
rsi /ʂʲ/rso /ʂˠ/rthi /ʈʰʲ/
rtho /ʈʰˠ/rti /ʈʲ/rto /ʈˠ/
rw /ɾʷ/rzi /ʐʲ/rzo /ʐˠ/
r̥i /r̥ʲ/r̥o /r̥ˠ/r̥w /r̥ʷ/
shi /ʃʲ/sho /ʃˠ/si /sʲ/
so /sˠ/sw /sʷ/thi /tʰʲ/
tho /tʰˠ/thw /tʰʷ/tḥ /tʰˤ/
ti /tʲ/tlhi /tɬʲ/tlho /tɬˠ/
to /tˠ/tw /tʷ/tzi /t͡sʲ/
tzo /t͡sˠ/tzw /t͡sʷ/tẓ /t͡sˤ/
t͡ʂi /t͡ʂʲ/t͡ʂo /t͡ʂˠ/un /ũ/
unun /ũː/uu /uː/vi /vʲ/
vo /vˠ/wi /ʋʲ/wo /ʋˠ/
wwi /wʲ/wwo /wˠ/wẉ /wˤ/
xhi /ᵏǁʰʲ/xho /ᵏǁʰˠ/xi /ᵏǁʲ/
xo /ᵏǁˠ/xxi /xʲ/xxo /xˠ/
xx̣ /xˤ/zhi /ʒʲ/zho /ʒˠ/
zi /zʲ/zo /zˠ/zw /zʷ/
æn /ɛ̃/ænæn /ɛ̃ː/ææ /ɛː/
èn /ɜ̃/ènèn /ɜ̃ː/èè /ɜː/
ën /ɘ̃/ënën /ɘ̃ː/ëë /ɘː/
ïn /ɨ̃/ïnïn /ɨ̃ː/ïï /ɨː/
ði /ðʲ/ðo /ðˠ/ðw /ðʷ/
ón /õ/ónón /õː/óó /oː/
þi /θʲ/þo /θˠ/þw /θʷ/
ği /ɣʲ/ğo /ɣˠ/ğw /ɣʷ/
ħgi /ɢʲ/ħgo /ɢˠ/ħgw /ɢʷ/
ħg̣ /ɢˤ/ħi /ħʲ/ħo /ħˠ/
ħħi /ʜʲ/ħħo /ʜˠ/ńi /n̥ʲ/
ńo /n̥ˠ/ńw /n̥ʷ/ŋ̥i /ŋ̥ʲ/
ŋ̥o /ŋ̥ˠ/ŋ̥w /ŋ̥ʷ/ŕi /rʲ/
ŕo /rˠ/ŕw /rʷ/ɔi /ɔi/
ɥi /ɥʲ/ɥo /ɥˠ/ɭi /ɭʲ/
ɭo /ɭˠ/ɮi /ɮʲ/ɮo /ɮˠ/
ɳ̥i /ɳ̥ʲ/ɳ̥o /ɳ̥ˠ/ɴi /ɴʲ/
ɴo /ɴˠ/ɴw /ɴʷ/ɸi /ɸʲ/
ɸo /ɸˠ/ɹi /ɹʲ/ɹo /ɹˠ/
ɹw /ɹʷ/ɺi /ɺʲ/ɺo /ɺˠ/
ɻi /ɻʲ/ɻo /ɻˠ/ʁi /ʁʲ/
ʁo /ʁˠ/ʁw /ʁʷ/ʈʼi /ʈʼʲ/
ʈʼo /ʈʼˠ/ʛi /ʛʲ/ʛo /ʛˠ/
ʛw /ʛʷ/ʡi /ʡʲ/ʡo /ʡˠ/
βi /βʲ/βo /βˠ/χi /χʲ/
χo /χˠ/χw /χʷ/ᵏǀʼi /ᵏǀʼʲ/
ᵏǀʼo /ᵏǀʼˠ/ᵏǀʼw /ᵏǀʼʷ/ᵏǀʼ̣ /ᵏǀʼˤ/
ᵏǁʼi /ᵏǁʼʲ/ᵏǁʼo /ᵏǁʼˠ/ᵏǃi /ᵏǃʲ/
ᵏǃo /ᵏǃˠ/ᵏǃw /ᵏǃʷ/ᵏǃʼi /ᵏǃʼʲ/
ᵏǃʼo /ᵏǃʼˠ/ᵏǃʼw /ᵏǃʼʷ/ᵏǃʼ̣ /ᵏǃʼˤ/
ᵏǃ̣ /ᵏǃˤ/ᵑǀʼi /ᵑǀʼʲ/ᵑǀʼo /ᵑǀʼˠ/
ᵑǀʼw /ᵑǀʼʷ/ᵑǀʼ̣ /ᵑǀʼˤ/ᵑǁʼi /ᵑǁʼʲ/
ᵑǁʼo /ᵑǁʼˠ/ᵑǃʼi /ᵑǃʼʲ/ᵑǃʼo /ᵑǃʼˠ/
ᵑǃʼw /ᵑǃʼʷ/ᵑǃʼ̣ /ᵑǃʼˤ/ṕi /p͡fʲ/
ṕo /p͡fˠ/ẅi /ɰʲ/ẅo /ɰˠ/
ẅw /ɰʷ/

Diacritics

◌̃ /꜔/◌̠̃ /꜔꜖/◌̄ /꜒/◌̄̃ /꜒꜔/
◌̠ /꜖/◌̠̃ /꜖꜔/

Word Classes and Morphology

Number and Gender

Number

Dlar does not have grammatical number.

Gender

Dlar has the following noun classes:

Class cl.1 – for instance: bp̣aẓhp̣ĩggw ‘seed’, d͡ʐoænæñʁo ‘tree’, rzoqoon̠qw ‘night’, siquaĩʛ̣ ‘year’, soóṛè̄ẉ ‘flower’, ṣdtió̃ħħo ‘time’, zwghiè̠̃dṭ ‘day’, zwthoïnïnddwā̃dto ‘bark’.

Class cl.2 – for instance: ddoī̃ngi ‘skin’, ddousoʡioñ̠wo ‘box’, goóṣbp̣ëë̄tzw ‘mortar’, kxoë̄gqw ‘house’, ncwā̃rw ‘road’, rzohtoïyón̄ɹ̣ ‘apple’, shogkiërziʈʼĩ̠ng̣ ‘bottle’, sokhoenþweneñxx̣ ‘wheat’, swtwënsokhièn̄ŕi ‘tower’, zhoṭææ̠̃ðw ‘fruit’, ɥohṭaĩ̠βo ‘salt’, ɮiāŕi ‘Dlar’.

Class cl.3 – for instance: ghiónsiʡoè̄̃zi ‘cloud’, jjoarzidiɔi̠gḥ ‘river’, jjoè̄̃bhi ‘stone’, koōdtw ‘water’, kxwè̠̃ṇ ‘wind’, miëχ̣aĩgħi ‘mountain’, qhiæzoʈʼiaa̠ɹw ‘ice’, rzogwïnïñf̣ ‘sea’, rzorthiininṣhʈoō̃dḍ ‘forest’, r̥oæñ̠tlho ‘land’, shirthiææzidiɔĩ̠rri ‘snow’, shoquinzibhièn̄sw ‘stick’, swdtoèdẓïn̄pi ‘fog’, swpiũ̠ngo ‘rain’, ṣkhièn̠ğw ‘earth’, tzio̠ħi ‘star’, wwoë̄̃ẓ ‘sun’, wẉɔĩrso ‘moon’, ẓgqueñɹw ‘fire’, χwæærsidtoaĩ̠ği ‘plain’.

Class cl.4 – for instance: boeẽto ‘top’, ggië̠bḥ ‘mouth’, giï̄bbo ‘surface’, gqiè̄qqhw ‘south’, qoa̠d͡ʐi ‘north’, rdhoïnïn̄ẅi ‘east’, rsikhoën̄̃gqw ‘west’, rzirdhiènèn̠di ‘inside’, zhoersotoë̄̃po ‘bosom’.

Class cl.5 – for instance: dṭïïzidtioo̠zo ‘court’, dziaɺoè̃ṣ ‘bank’, ggiingiẽ̠ngo ‘library’, gqwónónrsiphiērno ‘religion’, hkwiɸoænæn̠ħg̣ ‘urine’, moaakoiito ‘market’, rziphiananrsiɔi̠ʁw ‘student’, rzortoëshobpiuũβi ‘rope’, sihṭiβoóó̄̃ti ‘medicine’, sogquïgqoĩ̠hlo ‘restaurant’, soëëkouubḥ ‘school’, voïn̄ɺi ‘meat’, zwghoóóɻióó̠ṛ́ ‘anus’, ħħoènèn̄̃rto ‘foot’, ɴ̣èèsohtiæǣpi ‘cheese’, χiænrzopoaūβi ‘faeces’, ᵏǃwèn̄pi ‘egg’.

Class cl.6 – for instance: bhouuko ‘book’, doõ̠qi ‘language’, ggiè̃gi ‘head’, siqirzithoē̃f̣ ‘neighbour’, woiĩ̠ṭ ‘friend’, woèè̠̃ni ‘hair’, wwoiiẓrthiæ̠̃ẅo ‘dialect’, ziqïï̠si ‘city’, ɭiińoæ̠̃ʈʼi ‘farmer’.

Class cl.7 – for instance: chiètiïn̄ṇ ‘umbrella’, dhoèwẉuū̃ɴo ‘binoculars’, qḥinin̠p̣ ‘heart’, rzoiṣhtoii̠ʡi ‘root’, shiarzoghoï̄̃tlho ‘liver’, sigqwiirsitiɔi̠gg̣ ‘belly’, ħiuɥouũ̠sho ‘guts’, ʈʼoózwghiaūqqhi ‘knee’, ʛwejẽ̠ni ‘net’, ᵏǁʼiaaþiè̄̃χw ‘machine’.

Class cl.8 – for instance: që̄nw ‘chair’, rsiquhë̠̃dto ‘bed’, rzoghiè̠̃ɸ̣ ‘table’, rzohḳañp̣ ‘tongue’, r̥wë̃pi ‘speech’, shipiïnïñ̠ɭi ‘leg’, shogkien̄̃rni ‘nose’, sip̣ĩ̠gw ‘sound’, ṣʈʼiïnïnrzikiëë̠̃ngi ‘tail’, zortiẽ̠qi ‘eye’, zwpoinin̄̃þw ‘ear’.

Class cl.9 – for instance: d͡ʐoósikoo̠ggo ‘mammal’, ggiīmi ‘fish’, hkoēbo ‘animal’, koushogq̣a̠ʡo ‘feather’, koèsiphiunuñ̠ddo ‘snake’, pḥï̄̃ʡi ‘dog’, rsigquaa̠gw ‘cat’, rsoaīr̥i ‘bird’, wẉïghwonon̄ɴo ‘mouse’, zhithwódhwèè̠̃rw ‘lion’, zhiħgiëzwrdiãʈʼo ‘wild boar’, zhogiã̠vo ‘knife’, zhohpiækxwïnïñɸi ‘lamb’, zibiuzwhpiï̃ɴi ‘neck’, zidoænħħióó̄̃rri ‘horn’, zoghiïnshoquæ̃sho ‘worm’, ðoëzohkiè̄̃ðw ‘louse’, ğiizhobp̣ũ̠għi ‘jaguar’, ħħièrzoʈʼoan̄rno ‘wing’, ʁiiisoʡièn̄̃y ‘tiger’.

Class cl.10 – for instance: biĩtw ‘blood’, dtiïzhikhoonon̄zw ‘slime’, d͡ʐoenẓtoææ̠ħgi ‘smoke’, f̣on̄̃ɦ ‘idea’, mooonoiiq ‘money’, nië̠̃bp̣ ‘back’, nqoërsodtwonoñ̠β̣ ‘breath’, qqhoórriīngw ‘embrace’, rzidḥiiğwenen̄ʈʼi ‘ash’, rzodhouũshi ‘colour’, shothoanbp̣èè̠̃wo ‘dust’, zhiquææ̠̃ɻo ‘fight’, zodiæ̃ðo ‘face’, zoṭæætwï̠̃qw ‘fat’, zoħg̣ï̠̃rri ‘manner’, ħgoau̠dtw ‘name’.

Class cl.11 – for instance: bḅïŋ̥iun̄ẅo ‘breast’, gquónóñ̠bo ‘tooth’, loèngḥũ̠għi ‘grass’, rzidtõ̠ɴ̣ ‘hand’, rzoungqionoñ̠ði ‘fingernail’, shohṭónón̠qu ‘leaf’, soqoïñ̠dw ‘bone’, ṣhtoïnħg̣ëë̠̃tlhi ‘penis’, ẉizhigqoiĩ̠ɺo ‘brick’, ɹ̣onzirthian̠ddo ‘vagina’.

Class cl.12 – for instance: bḥiidjëëlo ‘teacher’, dhoqwë̄ʁi ‘hunter’, doeeɦ̠̃þo ‘God’, nqw̃ẓ ‘girl’, rzogqwï̠þ̣ ‘man’, rzoḳe̠gg̣ ‘daughter’, shopiin̠ŕw ‘human being’, shorthoĩngo ‘people’, shortoũ̠χo ‘husband’, shoóñtẓ ‘boy’, swhtwóñ̠ḍ ‘father’, thioñ̠þw ‘son’, zwpia̠ɥ̣ ‘child’, ẓgḳë̄rti ‘wife’, ħħoææ̠ħgo ‘woman’, ʛ̣ïï̄lo ‘mother’.

The Nominal Phrase

Nominal phrases in Dlar can be exemplified by the following example:

Tẓʈʼo ṣkḥëmo siininpḥæn#̃zho ħħoææ̠ħgo ddiïn#ːhṭaniñ̠ʛo tẓʈʼo rnoanhpiæn#̃zho zhogiã̠vo tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo rsihtwī̃gqw jurw rnoahpiĩ̠ği wẉïnghwon#ː̄ɴo sorthiã̠rzo shohʈiædi chiuŕw zhigoōğ̣ rsogqoïïʁ̣.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ sˤkʰˤɘmˠ sʲĩːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʜˠɛː꜖ɢˠ ɗʲɨ̃̃ːhtˤãĩ꜖꜔ʛˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʒˠɡʲa꜖꜔vˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ʂʲhtʷi꜒꜔qʼʷ d͡ʒuɾʷ ɳˠahpʲi꜖꜔ɣʲ wˤɨ̃gʱʷɔ̃̃ː꜒ɴˠ sˠʈʰʲa꜖꜔ʐˠ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ᵏǀʰʲurʷ ʒʲɡˠɔ꜒ɣˤ ʂˠqʼˠɨːʁˤ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
sˤkʰˤɘmˠ
ERG
sʲiːqʼˠ-
cl.12
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʜˠɛː꜖ɢˠ
woman
ɗʲɨ̃ːhtˤai꜖꜔ʛˠ
COMIT
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʒˠɡʲa꜖꜔vˠ
knife
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ʂʲhtʷi꜒꜔qʼʷ
blind
d͡ʒuɾʷ
3.sing.cl.10.plur
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
sˤqʷi꜖꜔ɣʲ
yon
wˤɨgʱʷɔ̃ː꜒ɴˠ
mouse
sˠʈʰʲa꜖꜔ʐˠ
three
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ᵏǀʰʲurʷ
3.sing.cl.12.SUBJ
ʒʲɡˠɔ꜒ɣˤ
catch
ʂˠqʼˠɨːʁˤ
3.sing.cl.10.OBJ

“The woman with the knife caught those three blind mice.”

(1)

In the following, we shall look at the various components in more details.

All nominal phrase clitics in Dlar are proclitics (placed initially, and there are two types: a clitic expressing case, comprising ṣkḥëmo /sˤkʰˤɘmˠ/ ‘ERG’, swtiægki /sʷtʲɛkʼʲ/ ‘ACC’, ħg̣ææħħi /ɢˤɛːʜʲ/ ‘DAT’, ẓbpoiẉ̈ /zˤpʼˠiɰˤ/ ‘INS’, nqwèdhi /ᵑǃʷɜdʱʲ/ ‘VOC’, ŋ̥iinvo /ŋ̥ʲi#vˠ/ ‘ALL’, ẉ̈r̥w /ɰˤᵊr̥ʷ/ ‘LOC’, ɥ̣óŕo /ɥˤorˠ/ ‘ABL’ and khwiħo /xʷiħˠ/ ‘PART’ followed by a clitic expressing possessor.number, comprising r̥oïβi /r̥ˠɨβʲ/ ‘1incl.sing.sing’, rzibhiaʁw /ʐʲbʱʲaʁʷ/ ‘1incl.sing.plur’, zighiip̣ /zʲgʱʲipˤ/ ‘1excl.sing.sing’, ŕoëẓ /rˠɘzˤ/ ‘1excl.sing.plur’, ẓbpieefo /zˤpʼʲeːfˠ/ ‘2.sing.sing’, ṕiæg̣ /p͡fʲɛɡˤ/ ‘2.sing.plur’, shothoèèɴ̣ /ʃˠtʰˠɜːɴˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.1.sing’, ẓgiuusho /zˤɡʲuːʃˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.1.plur’, ṇoħgi /nˤɔɢʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.2.sing’, ngiqu /ŋʲᵊkʷ/ ‘3.sing.cl.2.plur’, r̥wèqo /r̥ʷɜqˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.3.sing’, ggwënënqu /ɠʷɘ#ːkʷ/ ‘3.sing.cl.3.plur’, rrong̣ /ɽˠᵊŋˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.4.sing’, zhoħgiikx̣ /ʒˠɢʲik͡xˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.4.plur’, rsipiïği /ʂʲpʲɨɣʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.5.sing’, zordióóẅo /zˠɖʲoːɰˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.5.plur’, bboaʈʼo /ɓˠaʈʼˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.6.sing’, għiananpi /ʕʲa#ːpʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.6.plur’, ngwononħgi /ŋʷɔ#ːɢʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.7.sing’, choændḍ /ᵏǀʰˠɛ#ɗˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.7.plur’, sophiïngqo /sˠpʰʲɨ#qʼˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.8.sing’, ẓgquèèþw /zˤkʼʷɜːθʷ/ ‘3.sing.cl.8.plur’, ńoinrto /n̥ˠi#ʈˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.9.sing’, ddounŕw /ɗˠu#rʷ/ ‘3.sing.cl.9.plur’, hmoaχw /m̥ˠaχʷ/ ‘3.sing.cl.10.sing’, jurw /d͡ʒuɾʷ/ ‘3.sing.cl.10.plur’, zwpiantw /zʷpʲa#tʷ/ ‘3.sing.cl.11.sing’, hṭólo /htˤolˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.11.plur’, rsiqiènngw /ʂʲqʲɜ#ŋʷ/ ‘3.sing.cl.12.sing’, sihkoóór̥o /sʲhkˠoːr̥ˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.12.plur’, sihṭiɮi /sʲhtˤiɮʲ/ ‘1incl.plur.sing’, nc̣ibpo /ᵑǀˤipʼˠ/ ‘1incl.plur.plur’, zhibhiananti /ʒʲbʱʲa#ːtʲ/ ‘1excl.plur.sing’, xhiaarso /ᵏǁʰʲaːʂˠ/ ‘1excl.plur.plur’, ʡionli /ʡʲɔ#lʲ/ ‘2.plur.sing’, sihp̣ènli /sʲhpˤɜ#lʲ/ ‘2.plur.plur’, xxooðo /xˠɔðˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.1.sing’, ɻoóɹi /ɻˠoɹʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.1.plur’, rzobhiëddw /ʐˠbʱʲɘɗʷ/ ‘3.plur.cl.2.sing’, rsoʡiëbpo /ʂˠʡʲɘpʼˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.2.plur’, bboïnïnngi /ɓˠɨ#ːŋʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.3.sing’, chwóggw /ᵏǀʰʷoɠʷ/ ‘3.plur.cl.3.plur’, ᵑǁʼiuħg̣ /ᵑǁʼʲuɢˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.4.sing’, ᵏǃoëdzo /ᵏǃˠɘd͡zˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.4.plur’, ᵏǁʼióbḅ /ᵏǁʼʲoɓˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.5.sing’, ẓgkoæggw /zˤkʼˠɛɠʷ/ ‘3.plur.cl.5.plur’, shoóófo /ʃˠoːfˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.6.sing’, rtoebo /ʈˠebˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.6.plur’, ħgwqqho /ɢʷᵊq͡χˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.7.sing’, ʛwononrzo /ʛʷɔ#ːʐˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.7.plur’, ṣthiananħo /sˤtʰʲa#ːħˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.8.sing’, hṃg̣ /m̥ˤᵊɡˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.8.plur’, siquizhi /sʲkʷiʒʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.9.sing’, ẓrdoïʛw /zˤɖˠɨʛʷ/ ‘3.plur.cl.9.plur’, ᵏǃʼ̣bp̣ /ᵏǃʼˤᵊpʼˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.10.sing’, tiananḍ /tʲa#ːdˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.10.plur’, lioof̣ /lʲɔːfˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.11.sing’, rsitḥëħħi /ʂʲtʰˤɘʜʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.11.plur’, ńwobp̣ /n̥ʷɔpʼˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.12.sing’, rtoïnïnzhi /ʈˠɨ#ːʒʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.12.plur’, tẓʈʼo /t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ/ ‘no.owner.sing’ and sokhiinr̥o /sˠkʰʲi#r̥ˠ/ ‘no.owner.plur’.

The morphology of the elements of the nominal phrase, i.e., nouns, numerals and pronouns, is described below, as is the way that possession is expressed in Dlar.

The Noun

The noun in Dlar stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

The noun displays the following derivational morphology: 39 prefixes, namely rzodhwiili- /ʐˠdʱʷiːlʲ-/ ‘little’, cḥæzohpi- /ᵏǀʰˤɛzˠhpʲ-/ ‘big’, rsoḳæshoḳ- /ʂˠkˤɛʃˠkˤ-/ ‘old’, rsiëdzo- /ʂʲɘd͡zˠ-/ ‘new’, ddwiḍ- /ɗʷidˤ-/ ‘good’, dzwuuɸo- /d͡zʷuːɸˠ-/ ‘bad’, zitḥununmi- /zʲtʰˤu#ːmʲ-/ ‘make’, zoʈʼiaβo- /zˠʈʼʲaβˠ-/ ‘help’, zhigḥarsoquh- /ʒʲgʱˤaʂˠkʰʷ-/ ‘have’, zwtḥ- /zʷᵊtʰˤ-/ ‘use’, ẓgkiooggo- /zˤkʼʲɔːɠˠ-/ ‘see’, xoatẓ- /ᵏǁˠat͡sˤ-/ ‘break’, wiununsigq̣- /ʋʲu#ːsʲqʼˤ-/ ‘eat’, viænzwhko- /vʲɛ#zʷhkˠ-/ ‘drink’, dḍononshobpo- /ɗˤɔ#ːʃˠpʼˠ-/ ‘wear’, zohtooswpo- /zˠhtˠɔsʷpˠ-/ ‘own’, sihṭoᵏǃʼo- /sʲhtˤɔᵏǃʼˠ-/ ‘contain’, hṃæʁ̣- /m̥ˤɛʁˤ-/ ‘hold’, rziununṃ- /ʐʲu#ːmˤ-/ ‘lack’, miezwgko- /mʲezʷkʼˠ-/ ‘touch’, gkiuzwḍ- /kʼʲuzʷdˤ-/ ‘carry’, tiaẓrtho- /tʲazˤʈʰˠ-/ ‘find’, swthiuj- /sʷtʰʲud͡ʒ-/ ‘hunt’, swrthiozhiḅ- /sʷʈʰʲɔʒʲbˤ-/ ‘guard’, kxoeesohṭ- /k͡xˠeːsˠhtˤ-/ ‘search’, zhigkoaqo- /ʒʲkʼˠaqˠ-/ ‘learn’, swpiènþo- /sʷpʲɜ#θˠ-/ ‘teach’, rsihʈoësohpo- /ʂʲhʈˠɘsˠhpˠ-/ ‘follow’, soṭaṣhto- /sˠtˤasˤhtˠ-/ ‘chase’, rsoqonxo- /ʂˠʔɔᵑǁˠ-/ ‘build’, sogḳèṣqu- /sˠkʼˤɜsˤkʷ-/ ‘burn’, zobhiaswbpi- /zˠbʱʲasʷpʼʲ-/ ‘hit’, ṿezihʈo- /vˤezʲhʈˠ-/ ‘take’, swq̣ẓḍ- /sʷqˤᵊzˤdˤ-/ ‘cut’, wẉïïħgi- /wˤɨːɢʲ-/ ‘hear’, swquërdi- /sʷkʷɘɖʲ-/ ‘know’, gg̣èpho- /ɠˤɜpʰˠ-/ ‘love’, ɴwuʁi- /ɴʷuʁʲ-/ ‘protect’ and zhoquedṭ- /ʒˠkʷetʼˤ-/ ‘possess’

The Adjective

The adjective in Dlar stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Numerals

The numeral in Dlar stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Determiners

In Dlar, the determiner has the following structure: an optional prefix expressing gender, comprising ᵑǁʼoënënr̥o- /ᵑǁʼˠɘ#ːr̥ˠ-/ ‘cl.1’, χwænhtw- /χʷɛ#htʷ-/ ‘cl.2’, phiïr̥w- /pʰʲɨr̥ʷ-/ ‘cl.3’, swthoëëzoʈʼi- /sʷtʰˠɘːzˠʈʼʲ-/ ‘cl.4’, hʈoonħg̣- /hʈˠɔ#ɢˤ-/ ‘cl.5’, liæærsoq̣- /lʲɛːʂˠqˤ-/ ‘cl.6’, zopḥëɹ̣- /zˠpʰˤɘɹˤ-/ ‘cl.7’, d͡ʐiaɻi- /d͡ʐʲaɻʲ-/ ‘cl.8’, rnoahpi- /ɳˠahpʲ-/ ‘cl.9’, ghwèèzitw- /gʱʷɜːzʲtʷ-/ ‘cl.10’, sopoenẓhʈo- /sˠpˠe#zˤhʈˠ-/ ‘cl.11’ and siiigqo- /sʲiːqʼˠ-/ ‘cl.12’ followed by the root.

Pronouns

The pronoun in Dlar stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

In Dlar, both subject and object pronouns are dropped unless they are stressed. Here is an example where neither of the pronouns are stressed:

Chiuŕw gg̣èphõẓ.

[ᵏǀʰʲurʷ ɠˤɜpʰˠᵊ꜔zˤ]

ᵏǀʰʲurʷ
3.sing.cl.12.SUBJ
ɠˤɜpʰˠ-
love
ᵑǃʷᵊ꜔zˤ
girl

“He (the boy) loves her (the girl).”

(2)

But here, the word corresponding to he is stressed:

Tẓʈʼo piɔi̠ŕo chiuŕw gg̣èphõẓ.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ pʲɔi꜖rˠ ᵏǀʰʲurʷ ɠˤɜpʰˠᵊ꜔zˤ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
pʲɔi꜖rˠ
3.sing.cl.12
ᵏǀʰʲurʷ
3.sing.cl.12.SUBJ
ɠˤɜpʰˠ-
love
ᵑǃʷᵊ꜔zˤ
girl

He loves her.”

(3)

And here, it is the one translated as her that is stressed:

Chiuŕw gg̣èphõẓ.

[ᵏǀʰʲurʷ ɠˤɜpʰˠᵊ꜔zˤ]

ᵏǀʰʲurʷ
3.sing.cl.12.SUBJ
ɠˤɜpʰˠ-
love
ᵑǃʷᵊ꜔zˤ
girl

“He loves her.”

(4)

Proper Nouns

Tẓʈʼo siininpḥæn#̃zho Zhoħgwënzhigḥen#̃ḍ tẓʈʼo swtiægki siininpḥæn#̃zho Rsikoiχĩ̠ɴi chiuŕw dḍoɥoó̄ği ṣp̣adw.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ sʲĩːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʒˠɢʷɘ̃ʒʲgʱˤẽ̃꜔dˤ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ sʷtʲɛkʼʲ sʲĩːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʂʲkˠiχʲᵊ꜔꜖ɴʲ ᵏǀʰʲurʷ ɗˤɔɥˠo꜒ɣʲ sˤpˤadʷ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
sʲiːqʼˠ-
cl.12
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʒˠɢʷɘʒʲgʱˤẽ꜔dˤ
Zahzhged
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
sʷtʲɛkʼʲ
ACC
sʲiːqʼˠ-
cl.12
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʂʲkˠiχʲᵊ꜔꜖ɴʲ
Sahkikh
ᵏǀʰʲurʷ
3.sing.cl.12.SUBJ
ɗˤɔɥˠo꜒ɣʲ
hate
sˤpˤadʷ
3.sing.cl.12.OBJ

“Zahzhged hates Sahkikh.”

(5)

Possession

rsiqiènngw χwæn#htwæn#̃zho rzohtoïnyón#̄ɹ̣ tẓʈʼo siininpḥæn#̃zho shoón#̃tẓ

[ʂʲqʲɜ̃ŋʷ χʷɛ̃̃htʷɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʐˠhtˠɨ̃jõ̃꜒ɹˤ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ sʲĩːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʃˠõ̃꜔t͡sˤ]

ʂʲqʲɜ̃ŋʷ
3.sing.cl.12.sing
χʷɛ̃htʷ-
cl.2
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʐˠhtˠɨjõ꜒ɹˤ
apple
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
sʲiːqʼˠ-
cl.12
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʃˠõ꜔t͡sˤ
boy

“the boy’s apple”

(6)
rsiqiènngw χwæn#htwæn#̃zho rzohtoïnyón#̄ɹ̣ tẓʈʼo piɔi̠ŕo

[ʂʲqʲɜ̃ŋʷ χʷɛ̃̃htʷɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʐˠhtˠɨ̃jõ̃꜒ɹˤ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ pʲɔi꜖rˠ]

ʂʲqʲɜ̃ŋʷ
3.sing.cl.12.sing
χʷɛ̃htʷ-
cl.2
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʐˠhtˠɨjõ꜒ɹˤ
apple
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
pʲɔi꜖rˠ
3.sing.cl.12

“his (the boy’s) apple”

(7)
zighiip̣ χwæn#htwæn#̃zho rzohtoïnyón#̄ɹ̣

[zʲgʱʲipˤ χʷɛ̃̃htʷɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʐˠhtˠɨ̃jõ̃꜒ɹˤ]

zʲgʱʲipˤ
1excl.sing.sing
χʷɛ̃htʷ-
cl.2
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʐˠhtˠɨjõ꜒ɹˤ
apple

“my apple”

(8)
Tẓʈʼo ṣkḥëmo rsiqiènngw siininpḥæn#̃zho rzoḳe̠gg̣ tẓʈʼo siininpḥæn#̃zho dhoqwë̄ʁi tẓʈʼo bboaʈʼo siininpḥæn#̃zho thion#̠̃þw ẓbpieefo liænænpḥæn#̃zho siqirzithoē̃f̣ shohʈiædi chiuŕw ᵏǀʼ̣oɭoɔī̃hli ṣp̣adw.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ sˤkʰˤɘmˠ ʂʲqʲɜ̃ŋʷ sʲĩːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʐˠkˤe꜖ɠˤ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ sʲĩːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ dʱˠᵊqʷɘ꜒ʁʲ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ɓˠaʈʼˠ sʲĩːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ tʰʲɔ̃̃꜖꜔θʷ zˤpʼʲeːfˠ lʲɛ̃ːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ sʲʔiʐʲtʰˠe꜒꜔fˤ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ᵏǀʰʲurʷ ᵏǀʼˤɔɭˠɔi꜒꜔ɬʲ sˤpˤadʷ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
sˤkʰˤɘmˠ
ERG
ʂʲqʲɜ̃ŋʷ
3.sing.cl.12.sing
sʲiːqʼˠ-
cl.12
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʐˠkˤe꜖ɠˤ
daughter
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
sʲiːqʼˠ-
cl.12
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
dʱˠᵊqʷɘ꜒ʁʲ
hunter
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ɓˠaʈʼˠ
3.sing.cl.6.sing
sʲiːqʼˠ-
cl.12
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
tʰʲɔ̃꜖꜔θʷ
son
zˤpʼʲeːfˠ
2.sing.sing
lʲɛːʂˠqˤ-
cl.6
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
sʲʔiʐʲtʰˠe꜒꜔fˤ
neighbour
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ᵏǀʰʲurʷ
3.sing.cl.12.SUBJ
ᵏǀʼˤɔɭˠɔi꜒꜔ɬʲ
kiss
sˤpˤadʷ
3.sing.cl.12.OBJ

“The hunter’s daughter kissed your neighbour’s son.”

(9)

Derivation

tẓʈʼo rnoahpië̠rdi zhohpiænkxwïn#ː̃ɸi

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ɳˠahpʲɘ꜖ɖʲ ʒˠhpʲɛ̃k͡xʷɨ̃̃ː꜔ɸʲ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
ʐʲdʱˤɘ꜖ɖʲ
a
ʒˠhpʲɛk͡xʷɨ̃ː꜔ɸʲ
lamb

“a lamb”

(10)
tẓʈʼo rnoahpië̠rdi rzodhwininliænkxwïn#ː̃ɸi

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ɳˠahpʲɘ꜖ɖʲ ʐˠdʱʷĩːlʲɛ̃k͡xʷɨ̃̃ː꜔ɸʲ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
ʐʲdʱˤɘ꜖ɖʲ
a
ʐˠdʱʷiːlʲ-
little
ʒˠhpʲɛk͡xʷɨ̃ː꜔ɸʲ
lamb

“a little lamb”

(11)
Tẓʈʼo rnoahpië̠rdi rzodhwininliænkxwïn#ː̃ɸi shohʈiædi chiuŕw rsiqiiĩgi rrouɭo.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ɳˠahpʲɘ꜖ɖʲ ʐˠdʱʷĩːlʲɛ̃k͡xʷɨ̃̃ː꜔ɸʲ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ᵏǀʰʲurʷ ʂʲqʲiː꜔ɡʲ ɽˠuɭˠ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
ʐʲdʱˤɘ꜖ɖʲ
a
ʐˠdʱʷiːlʲ-
little
ʒˠhpʲɛk͡xʷɨ̃ː꜔ɸʲ
lamb
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ᵏǀʰʲurʷ
3.sing.cl.12.SUBJ
ʂʲqʲiː꜔ɡʲ
have
ɽˠuɭˠ
3.sing.cl.9.OBJ

“She had a little lamb.”

(12)
Shohʈiædi chiuŕw r̥̣ariiĩgi.

[ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ᵏǀʰʲurʷ r̥ˤaɾʲiː꜔ɡʲ]

ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ᵏǀʰʲurʷ
3.sing.cl.12.SUBJ
r̥ˤaɾʲ-
want
ʂʲqʲiː꜔ɡʲ
have

“She wanted to have a little lamb.”

(13)
Tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo shohʈiædi rsiqiiĩgi hmoaχw rnoahpië̠rdi rzodhwininliænkxwïn#ː̃ɸi shohʈiædi chiuŕw ggwo̠kxo choɔĩ̠ngo rsogqoïïʁ̣.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ʂʲqʲiː꜔ɡʲ m̥ˠaχʷ ɳˠahpʲɘ꜖ɖʲ ʐˠdʱʷĩːlʲɛ̃k͡xʷɨ̃̃ː꜔ɸʲ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ᵏǀʰʲurʷ ɠʷɔ꜖k͡xˠ ᵏǀʰˠɔi꜖꜔ŋˠ ʂˠqʼˠɨːʁˤ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ʂʲqʲiː꜔ɡʲ
have
m̥ˠaχʷ
3.sing.cl.10.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
ʐʲdʱˤɘ꜖ɖʲ
a
ʐˠdʱʷiːlʲ-
little
ʒˠhpʲɛk͡xʷɨ̃ː꜔ɸʲ
lamb
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ᵏǀʰʲurʷ
3.sing.cl.12.SUBJ
ɠʷɔ꜖k͡xˠ
want
ᵏǀʰˠɔi꜖꜔ŋˠ
often
ʂˠqʼˠɨːʁˤ
3.sing.cl.10.OBJ

“She often wanted to have a little lamb.”

(14)
Tẓʈʼo swtiægki tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo shohʈiædi rsiqiiĩgi hmoaχw rnoahpië̠rdi rzodhwininliænkxwïn#ː̃ɸi shohʈiædi ggwo̠kxo choɔĩ̠ngo rsogqoïïʁ̣ hmoaχw piɔi̠ŕo shohʈiædi ɮiĩ̠si rsogqoïïʁ̣ shothwaħgi zhoḅónqo zwdṭuqu sithwó̠po rsogqoïïʁ̣?

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ sʷtʲɛkʼʲ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ʂʲqʲiː꜔ɡʲ m̥ˠaχʷ ɳˠahpʲɘ꜖ɖʲ ʐˠdʱʷĩːlʲɛ̃k͡xʷɨ̃̃ː꜔ɸʲ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ɠʷɔ꜖k͡xˠ ᵏǀʰˠɔi꜖꜔ŋˠ ʂˠqʼˠɨːʁˤ m̥ˠaχʷ pʲɔi꜖rˠ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ɮʲi꜖꜔sʲ ʂˠqʼˠɨːʁˤ ʃˠtʰʷaɢʲ ʒˠbˤõqˠ zʷtʼˤukʷ sʲtʰʷo꜖pˠ ʂˠqʼˠɨːʁˤ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
sʷtʲɛkʼʲ
ACC
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ʂʲqʲiː꜔ɡʲ
have
m̥ˠaχʷ
3.sing.cl.10.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
ʐʲdʱˤɘ꜖ɖʲ
a
ʐˠdʱʷiːlʲ-
little
ʒˠhpʲɛk͡xʷɨ̃ː꜔ɸʲ
lamb
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ɠʷɔ꜖k͡xˠ
want
ᵏǀʰˠɔi꜖꜔ŋˠ
often
ʂˠqʼˠɨːʁˤ
3.sing.cl.10.OBJ
m̥ˠaχʷ
3.sing.cl.10.sing
pʲɔi꜖rˠ
3.sing.cl.12
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ɮʲi꜖꜔sʲ
think
ʂˠqʼˠɨːʁˤ
3.sing.cl.10.OBJ
ʃˠtʰʷaɢʲ
NEG
ʒˠbˤõqˠ
2.sing.SUBJ
zʷtʼˤukʷ
Q
sʲtʰʷo꜖pˠ
be
ʂˠqʼˠɨːʁˤ
3.sing.cl.10.OBJ

“Are you not one of those who thought that she often wanted to have a little lamb?”

(15)

Compounding

Verbs

Inflectional Categories

The verbal phrase clitics in Dlar fall into two categories, proclitics and enclitics: first, a clitic expressing question, comprising zwdṭuqu /zʷtʼˤukʷ/ ‘Q’; second, a clitic expressing indobj, comprising rdhiuudto /ɖʱʲuːtʼˠ/ ‘1incl.sing’, zhiuɸo /ʒʲuɸˠ/ ‘1excl.sing’, rsotḥóli /ʂˠtʰˤolʲ/ ‘2.sing’, soqiitw /sˠqʲitʷ/ ‘3.sing.cl.1’, zoʈʼieeqqhi /zˠʈʼʲeːq͡χʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.2’, hloanɴ̣ /ɬˠa#ɴˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.3’, rziphoëngħi /ʐʲpʰˠɘ#ʕʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.4’, nxiëɸo /ᵑǁʲɘɸˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.5’, tziëɸ̣ /t͡sʲɘɸˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.6’, gqoóɹw /qʼˠoɹʷ/ ‘3.sing.cl.7’, sihpirsi /sʲhpʲᵊʂʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.8’, zhokḥèwẉ /ʒˠkʰˤɜwˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.9’, þ̣bbi /θˤᵊɓʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.10’, djærdo /t͡ʃɛɖˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.11’, ŕodi /rˠᵊdʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.12’, sitwënënto /sʲtʷɘ#ːtˠ/ ‘1incl.plur’, ddiïïɻo /ɗʲɨːɻˠ/ ‘1excl.plur’, ᵏǁʼiondw /ᵏǁʼʲɔ#dʷ/ ‘2.plur’, rzirdoaagħo /ʐʲɖˠaːʕˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.1’, zhodwïd͡ʐo /ʒˠdʷɨd͡ʐˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.2’, nq̣urso /ᵑǃˤuʂˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.3’, hloexxi /ɬˠexʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.4’, foaalo /fˠaːlˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.5’, rsoquaɹw /ʂˠkʷaɹʷ/ ‘3.plur.cl.6’, kièŕo /kʲɜrˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.7’, htwænænṿ /htʷɛ#ːvˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.8’, ṕoifo /p͡fˠifˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.9’, shorthiëëħg̣ /ʃˠʈʰʲɘːɢˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.10’, kḥenddw /kʰˤe#ɗʷ/ ‘3.plur.cl.11’ and qqhoħħo /q͡χˠᵊʜˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.12’; third, a clitic expressing subj, comprising ɸiïnïndw /ɸʲɨ#ːdʷ/ ‘1incl.sing’, swisw /sʷisʷ/ ‘1excl.sing’, zhoḅónqo /ʒˠbˤo#qˠ/ ‘2.sing’, swop̣ /sʷɔpˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.2’, ṛ́irzi /rˤiʐʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.3’, rziboènènqw /ʐʲbˠɜ#ːqʷ/ ‘3.sing.cl.4’, rzordhiæbi /ʐˠɖʱʲɛbʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.5’, zhiḅrri /ʒʲbˤᵊɽʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.6’, gg̣ónónrni /ɠˤo#ːɳʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.7’, gg̣oþw /ɠˤɔθʷ/ ‘3.sing.cl.8’, ᵏǃ̣ææħi /ᵏǃˤɛːħʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.9’, zhip̣óti /ʒʲpˤotʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.10’, shohʈoerno /ʃˠhʈˠeɳˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.11’, chiuŕw /ᵏǀʰʲurʷ/ ‘3.sing.cl.12’, hṭir̥w /htˤir̥ʷ/ ‘1incl.plur’, bḥèr̥w /bʱˤɜr̥ʷ/ ‘1excl.plur’, soʈʼiënẉ̈ /sˠʈʼʲɘ#ɰˤ/ ‘2.plur’, ggoṣ /ɠˠᵊsˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.1’, rthoiiŕo /ʈʰˠiːrˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.2’, qqḥuut͡ʂi /q͡χˤuːt͡ʂʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.3’, sidtiaŕi /sʲtʼʲarʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.4’, ɭido /ɭʲᵊdˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.5’, ṣtḥingi /sˤtʰˤi#ɡʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.6’, ddoinbp̣ /ɗˠi#pʼˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.7’, f̣ææʁi /fˤɛːʁʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.8’, voininbbo /vˠi#ːɓˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.9’, sophou /sˠpʰˠu/ ‘3.plur.cl.10’, zwkḥëng̣ /zʷkʰˤɘŋˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.11’ and nwïgqi /nʷɨqʼʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.12’; fourth, a clitic expressing negation, comprising shothwaħgi /ʃˠtʰʷaɢʲ/ ‘NEG’; fifth, a clitic expressing voice, comprising ğwænṕo /ɣʷɛ#p͡fˠ/ ‘passive’; sixth, a clitic expressing mode, comprising khwènsi /xʷɜ#sʲ/ ‘imperative’, ᵏǃʼ̣aaħgw /ᵏǃʼˤaːɢʷ/ ‘conditional’ and hkoeβ̣ /hkˠeβˤ/ ‘optative’; seventh, a clitic expressing ta, comprising shohʈiædi /ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ/ ‘PAST’; and finally, eighth, a clitic expressing obj, comprising jjooɹ̣ /ʄˠɔɹˤ/ ‘1incl.sing’, kxwënënlo /k͡xʷɘ#ːlˠ/ ‘1excl.sing’, shodtwëvi /ʃˠtʼʷɘvʲ/ ‘2.sing’, xhoananrzi /ᵏǁʰˠa#ːʐʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.1’, shopiami /ʃˠpʲamʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.2’, vounw /vˠunʷ/ ‘3.sing.cl.3’, ɭiarni /ɭʲaɳʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.4’, zoghoadḍ /zˠgʱˠaɗˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.5’, t͡ʂiananχw /t͡ʂʲa#ːχʷ/ ‘3.sing.cl.6’, ṿigq̣ /vˤiqʼˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.7’, nq̣eso /ᵑǃˤesˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.8’, rrouɭo /ɽˠuɭˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.9’, rsogqoïïʁ̣ /ʂˠqʼˠɨːʁˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.10’, zhoódẓ /ʒˠod͡zˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.11’, ṣp̣adw /sˤpˤadʷ/ ‘3.sing.cl.12’, zigq̣uufi /zʲqʼˤuːfʲ/ ‘1incl.plur’, sibpiinbbi /sʲpʼʲi#ɓʲ/ ‘1excl.plur’, ggwʁi /ɠʷᵊʁʲ/ ‘2.plur’, sotiènènrno /sˠtʲɜ#ːɳˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.1’, zibpourdo /zʲpʼˠuɖˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.2’, rsieɺo /ʂʲeɺˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.3’, gq̣endzi /qʼˤe#d͡zʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.4’, ṣrthiudẓ /sˤʈʰʲud͡zˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.5’, rzoḅiɥi /ʐˠbˤiɥʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.6’, kxoënrro /k͡xˠɘ#ɽˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.7’, qoïqu /qˠɨkʷ/ ‘3.plur.cl.8’, hṭïɸ̣ /htˤɨɸˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.9’, hṭiigħi /htˤiːʕʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.10’, ziqoeer̥i /zʲqˠeːr̥ʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.11’ and rzoħgoɸi /ʐˠɢˠᵊɸʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.12’.

The verb itself does not have any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

The verb displays the following derivational morphology: 19 prefixes, namely rsidtorsikhi- /ʂʲtʼˠᵊʂʲkʰʲ-/ ‘begin’, ddoædto- /ɗˠɛtʼˠ-/ ‘stop’, ᵑǃʼwïnïnṛ́- /ᵑǃʼʷɨ#ːrˤ-/ ‘continue’, sohḳeʛo- /sˠhkˤeʛˠ-/ ‘try’, ᵑǁʼoṕ̣- /ᵑǁʼˠᵊp͡fˤ-/ ‘start’, r̥̣ari- /r̥ˤaɾʲ-/ ‘want’, ᵏǀʼwonṣthw- /ᵏǀʼʷɔ#sˤtʰʷ-/ ‘can’, gkoardho- /kʼˠaɖʱˠ-/ ‘finish’, soquonzhidhi- /sˠkʷɔ#ʒʲdʱʲ-/ ‘need’, rziïnïnɥo- /ʐʲɨ#ːɥˠ-/ ‘decide’, nwinxo- /nʷiᵑǁˠ-/ ‘fail’, ɹiëshohʈo- /ɹʲɘʃˠhʈˠ-/ ‘hope’, kḥuṣṭ- /kʰˤusˤtˤ-/ ‘must’, ggionᵏǃw- /ɠʲɔ#ᵏǃʷ-/ ‘pretend’, swqoaagqw- /sʷqˠaːqʼʷ-/ ‘let’, zhoḅekho- /ʒˠbˤekʰˠ-/ ‘force’, siqoaaẓʈʼi- /sʲqˠaːzˤʈʼʲ-/ ‘keep’, rsodtoëɮi- /ʂˠtʼˠɘɮʲ-/ ‘cause’ and ğwenenrno- /ɣʷe#ːɳˠ-/ ‘allow’

Swisw sodṭæn#̠tẓ shodtwëvi.

[sʷisʷ sˠtʼˤɛ̃̃꜖t͡sˤ ʃˠtʼʷɘvʲ]

sʷisʷ
1excl.sing.SUBJ
sˠtʼˤɛ̃꜖t͡sˤ
love
ʃˠtʼʷɘvʲ
2.sing.OBJ

“I love you.”

(16)

Adverbs Minor Classes

Adpositions

There is one type of clitic in the adpositional phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing root.

ħħō̃vo ẉ̈r̥w tẓʈʼo giï̄bbo tẓʈʼo d͡ʐianpḥæn#̃zho rzoghiè̠̃ɸ̣

[ʜˠᵊ꜒꜔vˠ ɰˤᵊr̥ʷ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ɡʲɨ꜒ɓˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ d͡ʐʲãpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʐˠgʱʲɜ꜖꜔ɸˤ]

ʜˠᵊ꜒꜔vˠ
in
ɰˤᵊr̥ʷ
LOC
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ɡʲɨ꜒ɓˠ
surface
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
d͡ʐʲaɻʲ-
cl.8
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʐˠgʱʲɜ꜖꜔ɸˤ
table

“on the table”

(17)
khwaãṛ́ ħg̣ææħħi tẓʈʼo rzirdhièn#ː̠di tẓʈʼo χwæn#htwæn#̃zho ddounsoʡion#̠̃wo

[xʷaː꜔rˤ ɢˤɛːʜʲ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ʐʲɖʱʲɜ̃̃ː꜖dʲ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ χʷɛ̃̃htʷɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ɗˠũsˠʡʲɔ̃̃꜖꜔ʋˠ]

xʷaː꜔rˤ
to
ɢˤɛːʜʲ
DAT
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ʐʲɖʱʲɜ̃ː꜖dʲ
inside
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
χʷɛ̃htʷ-
cl.2
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ɗˠusˠʡʲɔ̃꜖꜔ʋˠ
box

“into the box”

(18)
ddiïn#ːhṭaniñ̠ʛo tẓʈʼo ẉ̈r̥w t͡ʂõ̠ğ̣

[ɗʲɨ̃̃ːhtˤãĩ꜖꜔ʛˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ɰˤᵊr̥ʷ t͡ʂˠᵊ꜔꜖ɣˤ]

ɗʲɨ̃ːhtˤai꜖꜔ʛˠ
COMIT
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ɰˤᵊr̥ʷ
LOC
t͡ʂˠᵊ꜔꜖ɣˤ
1excl.sing

“with me”

(19)

Syntax

Basic Clause Structure

Constituent Order

Constituent order describes the typical arrangement of the subject (S), verb (V) and object (O) in simple declarative clauses. It is a fundamental parameter in grammatical description and forms one of the clearest ways of characterising the overall structure of a language’s clause system.

Dlar has basic Subject–Object–Verb (SOV) word order. The subject precedes the object, and the verb appears at the end of the clause. This is one of the most frequent patterns cross-linguistically.

The following examples illustrate the basic, unmarked, constituent order in Dlar.

Tẓʈʼo ṣkḥëmo rnoanhpiæn#̃zho ğiizhobp̣ũ̠għi tẓʈʼo siininpḥæn#̃zho dhoqwë̄ʁi shohʈiædi ᵏǃ̣ææħi sihkwó̄̃tlho ṣp̣adw.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ sˤkʰˤɘmˠ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ɣʲiʒˠpʼˤu꜔꜖ʕʲ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ sʲĩːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ dʱˠᵊqʷɘ꜒ʁʲ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ᵏǃˤɛːħʲ sʲhkʷo꜒꜔tɬˠ sˤpˤadʷ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
sˤkʰˤɘmˠ
ERG
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ɣʲiʒˠpʼˤu꜔꜖ʕʲ
jaguar
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
sʲiːqʼˠ-
cl.12
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
dʱˠᵊqʷɘ꜒ʁʲ
hunter
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ᵏǃˤɛːħʲ
3.sing.cl.9.SUBJ
sʲhkʷo꜒꜔tɬˠ
kill
sˤpˤadʷ
3.sing.cl.12.OBJ

“The jaguar killed the hunter.”

(20)
Tẓʈʼo ṣkḥëmo rnoanhpiæn#̃zho zhithwódhwèè̠̃rw tẓʈʼo rsiqiènngw rnoanhpiæn#̃zho pḥï̄̃ʡi rsiqiènngw siininpḥæn#̃zho rzoḳe̠gg̣ tẓʈʼo siininpḥæn#̃zho dhoqwë̄ʁi shohʈiædi ᵏǃ̣ææħi ṣphõ̠do rrouɭo.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ sˤkʰˤɘmˠ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʒʲtʰʷodʱʷɜː꜖꜔ɾʷ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ʂʲqʲɜ̃ŋʷ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ pʰˤɨ꜒꜔ʡʲ ʂʲqʲɜ̃ŋʷ sʲĩːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʐˠkˤe꜖ɠˤ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ sʲĩːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ dʱˠᵊqʷɘ꜒ʁʲ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ᵏǃˤɛːħʲ sˤpʰˠᵊ꜔꜖dˠ ɽˠuɭˠ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
sˤkʰˤɘmˠ
ERG
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʒʲtʰʷodʱʷɜː꜖꜔ɾʷ
lion
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ʂʲqʲɜ̃ŋʷ
3.sing.cl.12.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
pʰˤɨ꜒꜔ʡʲ
dog
ʂʲqʲɜ̃ŋʷ
3.sing.cl.12.sing
sʲiːqʼˠ-
cl.12
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʐˠkˤe꜖ɠˤ
daughter
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
sʲiːqʼˠ-
cl.12
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
dʱˠᵊqʷɘ꜒ʁʲ
hunter
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ᵏǃˤɛːħʲ
3.sing.cl.9.SUBJ
sˤpʰˠᵊ꜔꜖dˠ
eat
ɽˠuɭˠ
3.sing.cl.9.OBJ

“The lion ate the hunter’s daughter’s dog.”

(21)

The language has a fixed constituent order, and major phrases normally appear in a predictable position in the clause. Movement for discourse reasons is highly restricted: topics and foci are expressed not by rearranging elements, but through dedicated constructions such as clefts, focus clauses or topic–comment frames. Constituents remain continuous, and both the relative order of phrases and the internal structure of each phrase are stable. As a result, significant deviations from the basic word order are ungrammatical, and discourse structure is managed through these specialised constructions rather than through word-order variation.

Noun Phrases

Structure and Order

The internal structure of noun phrases in Dlar reveals typologically significant preferences in the ordering of nominal constituents. This includes the position of adjectives, numerals, and possessors relative to the noun, each of which can offer clues to the overall headedness of the language.

Possessive constructions are head-initial: the possessed noun precedes the possessor. For instance, Dlar expresses “the child’s toy” with the equivalent of “toy child”. This structure is typologically rarer and often co-occurs with verb-initial syntax or with grammatical marking on the noun.

bboaʈʼo liænænpḥæn#̃zho bhouuko rsiqiènngw liænænpḥæn#̃zho woiĩ̠ṭ ẓbpieefo siininpḥæn#̃zho thion#̠̃þw

[ɓˠaʈʼˠ lʲɛ̃ːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ bʱˠuːkˠ ʂʲqʲɜ̃ŋʷ lʲɛ̃ːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʋˠiː꜔꜖tˤ zˤpʼʲeːfˠ sʲĩːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ tʰʲɔ̃̃꜖꜔θʷ]

ɓˠaʈʼˠ
3.sing.cl.6.sing
lʲɛːʂˠqˤ-
cl.6
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
bʱˠuːkˠ
book
ʂʲqʲɜ̃ŋʷ
3.sing.cl.12.sing
lʲɛːʂˠqˤ-
cl.6
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʋˠiː꜔꜖tˤ
friend
zˤpʼʲeːfˠ
2.sing.sing
sʲiːqʼˠ-
cl.12
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
tʰʲɔ̃꜖꜔θʷ
son

“your son’s friend’s book”

(22)

Case Marking

Dlar uses split case marking. In the present tense, the grammar follows a nominative–accusative pattern, where intransitive and transitive subjects are treated alike and objects are marked with the accusative. In the past tense, however, it follows an ergative–absolutive pattern, here called ergative–nominative, where intransitive subjects and transitive objects are treated alike and transitive subjects are marked with the ergative. This makes sense because present-tense clauses often describe events as ongoing, habitual or controlled by an active participant, so the grammar treats the subject as the central argument. Past-tense clauses, by contrast, often present an event as completed, making the affected participant especially salient. The ergative marking then singles out the transitive agent as the additional participant responsible for bringing about that result.

Tẓʈʼo rnoanhpiæn#̃zho rsigquaa̠gw ᵏǃ̣ææħi sihp̣aũɹo.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʂʲkʼʷaː꜖ɡʷ ᵏǃˤɛːħʲ sʲhpˤau꜔ɹˠ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʂʲkʼʷaː꜖ɡʷ
cat
ᵏǃˤɛːħʲ
3.sing.cl.9.SUBJ
sʲhpˤau꜔ɹˠ
sleep

“The cat is sleeping.”

(23)
Tẓʈʼo rnoanhpiæn#̃zho rsigquaa̠gw ᵏǃ̣ææħi χoeẽ̠ɥi.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʂʲkʼʷaː꜖ɡʷ ᵏǃˤɛːħʲ χˠeː꜖꜔ɥʲ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʂʲkʼʷaː꜖ɡʷ
cat
ᵏǃˤɛːħʲ
3.sing.cl.9.SUBJ
χˠeː꜖꜔ɥʲ
run

“The cat is running.”

(24)
Tẓʈʼo rnoanhpiæn#̃zho rsigquaa̠gw tẓʈʼo swtiægki rnoanhpiæn#̃zho wẉïnghwon#ː̄ɴo ᵏǃ̣ææħi ẓṭæzhigoïï̠̃rzi rrouɭo.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʂʲkʼʷaː꜖ɡʷ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ sʷtʲɛkʼʲ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ wˤɨ̃gʱʷɔ̃̃ː꜒ɴˠ ᵏǃˤɛːħʲ zˤtˤɛʒʲɡˠɨː꜖꜔ʐʲ ɽˠuɭˠ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʂʲkʼʷaː꜖ɡʷ
cat
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
sʷtʲɛkʼʲ
ACC
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
wˤɨgʱʷɔ̃ː꜒ɴˠ
mouse
ᵏǃˤɛːħʲ
3.sing.cl.9.SUBJ
zˤtˤɛʒʲɡˠɨː꜖꜔ʐʲ
chase
ɽˠuɭˠ
3.sing.cl.9.OBJ

“The cat is chasing the mouse.”

(25)
Tẓʈʼo ṣkḥëmo rnoanhpiæn#̃zho rsigquaa̠gw tẓʈʼo rnoanhpiæn#̃zho wẉïnghwon#ː̄ɴo shohʈiædi ᵏǃ̣ææħi zhigoōğ̣ rrouɭo.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ sˤkʰˤɘmˠ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʂʲkʼʷaː꜖ɡʷ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ wˤɨ̃gʱʷɔ̃̃ː꜒ɴˠ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ᵏǃˤɛːħʲ ʒʲɡˠɔ꜒ɣˤ ɽˠuɭˠ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
sˤkʰˤɘmˠ
ERG
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʂʲkʼʷaː꜖ɡʷ
cat
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
wˤɨgʱʷɔ̃ː꜒ɴˠ
mouse
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ᵏǃˤɛːħʲ
3.sing.cl.9.SUBJ
ʒʲɡˠɔ꜒ɣˤ
catch
ɽˠuɭˠ
3.sing.cl.9.OBJ

“The cat caught the mouse.”

(26)

Conjunctions

Here is an example of a conjunction.

Tẓʈʼo ṣkḥëmo siininpḥæn#̃zho dhoqwë̄ʁi sokhiinr̥o sokhiinr̥o rnoanhpiæn#̃zho ğiizhobp̣ũ̠għi zhohtwābbo sokhiinr̥o rnoanhpiæn#̃zho ʁiininsoʡièn#̄̃y zhohtwābbo sokhiinr̥o rnoanhpiæn#̃zho zhithwódhwèè̠̃rw shohʈiædi chiuŕw sihkwó̄̃tlho hṭïɸ̣.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ sˤkʰˤɘmˠ sʲĩːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ dʱˠᵊqʷɘ꜒ʁʲ sˠkʰʲĩr̥ˠ sˠkʰʲĩr̥ˠ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ɣʲiʒˠpʼˤu꜔꜖ʕʲ ʒˠhtʷa꜒ɓˠ sˠkʰʲĩr̥ˠ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʁʲĩːsˠʡʲɜ̃̃꜒꜔j ʒˠhtʷa꜒ɓˠ sˠkʰʲĩr̥ˠ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʒʲtʰʷodʱʷɜː꜖꜔ɾʷ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ᵏǀʰʲurʷ sʲhkʷo꜒꜔tɬˠ htˤɨɸˤ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
sˤkʰˤɘmˠ
ERG
sʲiːqʼˠ-
cl.12
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
dʱˠᵊqʷɘ꜒ʁʲ
hunter
sˠkʰʲĩr̥ˠ
no.owner.plur
sˠkʰʲĩr̥ˠ
no.owner.plur
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ɣʲiʒˠpʼˤu꜔꜖ʕʲ
jaguar
ʒˠhtʷa꜒ɓˠ
and
sˠkʰʲĩr̥ˠ
no.owner.plur
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʁʲiːsˠʡʲɜ̃꜒꜔j
tiger
ʒˠhtʷa꜒ɓˠ
and
sˠkʰʲĩr̥ˠ
no.owner.plur
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʒʲtʰʷodʱʷɜː꜖꜔ɾʷ
lion
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ᵏǀʰʲurʷ
3.sing.cl.12.SUBJ
sʲhkʷo꜒꜔tɬˠ
kill
htˤɨɸˤ
3.plur.cl.9.OBJ

“The hunter killed the jaguars, the tigers and the lions.”

(27)

Modifiers and Determiners

The ordering of demonstratives, articles (if present), and other modifiers in Dlar provides further insight into the structure of the noun phrase. These elements frequently exhibit fixed positions and may reveal whether the language favours head-initial or head-final patterns.

Complex Sentences

Relative Clauses

Dlar forms relative clauses by using a head-internal strategy. The head noun appears inside the clause itself, occupying its regular syntactic position. The entire clause functions as a modifier, and its external syntactic behaviour is identical to that of a noun-modifying phrase.

To illustrate how relative clauses work, let us begin with a simple sentence:

Tẓʈʼo rnoanhpiæn#̃zho rsigquaa̠gw shohʈiædi swisw djaashihkwóó̃ɴ̣ rrouɭo.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʂʲkʼʷaː꜖ɡʷ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ sʷisʷ t͡ʃaːʃʲhkʷoː꜔ɴˤ ɽˠuɭˠ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʂʲkʼʷaː꜖ɡʷ
cat
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
sʷisʷ
1excl.sing.SUBJ
t͡ʃaːʃʲhkʷoː꜔ɴˤ
pat
ɽˠuɭˠ
3.sing.cl.9.OBJ

“I patted the cat.”

(28)

We can now add a relative clause modifying the noun:

Tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo rnoanhpiæn#̃zho wẉïnghwon#ː̄ɴo shohʈiædi zhigoōğ̣ rrouɭo hmoaχw rnoanhpiæn#̃zho rsigquaa̠gw shohʈiædi swisw djaashihkwóó̃ɴ̣ rsogqoïïʁ̣.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ wˤɨ̃gʱʷɔ̃̃ː꜒ɴˠ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ʒʲɡˠɔ꜒ɣˤ ɽˠuɭˠ m̥ˠaχʷ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʂʲkʼʷaː꜖ɡʷ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ sʷisʷ t͡ʃaːʃʲhkʷoː꜔ɴˤ ʂˠqʼˠɨːʁˤ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
wˤɨgʱʷɔ̃ː꜒ɴˠ
mouse
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ʒʲɡˠɔ꜒ɣˤ
catch
ɽˠuɭˠ
3.sing.cl.9.OBJ
m̥ˠaχʷ
3.sing.cl.10.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʂʲkʼʷaː꜖ɡʷ
cat
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
sʷisʷ
1excl.sing.SUBJ
t͡ʃaːʃʲhkʷoː꜔ɴˤ
pat
ʂˠqʼˠɨːʁˤ
3.sing.cl.10.OBJ

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse.”

(29)

Relative clauses may themselves contain other relative clauses:

Tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo hʈoon#pḥæn#̃zho ɴ̣èèsohtiæǣpi shohʈiædi ṣphõ̠do zoghoadḍ hmoaχw rnoanhpiæn#̃zho wẉïnghwon#ː̄ɴo shohʈiædi zhigoōğ̣ rsogqoïïʁ̣ hmoaχw rnoanhpiæn#̃zho rsigquaa̠gw shohʈiædi swisw djaashihkwóó̃ɴ̣ rsogqoïïʁ̣.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ hʈˠɔ̃̃pʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ɴˤɜːsˠhtʲɛː꜒pʲ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ sˤpʰˠᵊ꜔꜖dˠ zˠgʱˠaɗˤ m̥ˠaχʷ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ wˤɨ̃gʱʷɔ̃̃ː꜒ɴˠ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ʒʲɡˠɔ꜒ɣˤ ʂˠqʼˠɨːʁˤ m̥ˠaχʷ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʂʲkʼʷaː꜖ɡʷ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ sʷisʷ t͡ʃaːʃʲhkʷoː꜔ɴˤ ʂˠqʼˠɨːʁˤ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
hʈˠɔ̃ɢˤ-
cl.5
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ɴˤɜːsˠhtʲɛː꜒pʲ
cheese
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
sˤpʰˠᵊ꜔꜖dˠ
eat
zˠgʱˠaɗˤ
3.sing.cl.5.OBJ
m̥ˠaχʷ
3.sing.cl.10.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
wˤɨgʱʷɔ̃ː꜒ɴˠ
mouse
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ʒʲɡˠɔ꜒ɣˤ
catch
ʂˠqʼˠɨːʁˤ
3.sing.cl.10.OBJ
m̥ˠaχʷ
3.sing.cl.10.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʂʲkʼʷaː꜖ɡʷ
cat
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
sʷisʷ
1excl.sing.SUBJ
t͡ʃaːʃʲhkʷoː꜔ɴˤ
pat
ʂˠqʼˠɨːʁˤ
3.sing.cl.10.OBJ

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese.”

(30)

Finally, here is an example containing several layers of embedding:

Tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo hʈoon#pḥæn#̃zho ɴ̣èèsohtiæǣpi shohʈiædi ɮoon#̄̃po zoghoadḍ hmoaχw t͡ʂõ̠ğ̣ shohʈiædi ṣphõ̠do kxwënënlo hmoaχw rnoanhpiæn#̃zho wẉïnghwon#ː̄ɴo shohʈiædi zhigoōğ̣ kxwënënlo hmoaχw rnoanhpiæn#̃zho rsigquaa̠gw shohʈiædi swisw djaashihkwóó̃ɴ̣ kxwënënlo.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ hʈˠɔ̃̃pʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ɴˤɜːsˠhtʲɛː꜒pʲ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ɮˠɔ̃̃꜒꜔pˠ zˠgʱˠaɗˤ m̥ˠaχʷ t͡ʂˠᵊ꜔꜖ɣˤ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ sˤpʰˠᵊ꜔꜖dˠ k͡xʷɘ̃ːlˠ m̥ˠaχʷ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ wˤɨ̃gʱʷɔ̃̃ː꜒ɴˠ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ʒʲɡˠɔ꜒ɣˤ k͡xʷɘ̃ːlˠ m̥ˠaχʷ ɳˠãhpʲɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʂʲkʼʷaː꜖ɡʷ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ sʷisʷ t͡ʃaːʃʲhkʷoː꜔ɴˤ k͡xʷɘ̃ːlˠ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
hʈˠɔ̃ɢˤ-
cl.5
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ɴˤɜːsˠhtʲɛː꜒pʲ
cheese
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ɮˠɔ̃꜒꜔pˠ
buy
zˠgʱˠaɗˤ
3.sing.cl.5.OBJ
m̥ˠaχʷ
3.sing.cl.10.sing
t͡ʂˠᵊ꜔꜖ɣˤ
1excl.sing
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
sˤpʰˠᵊ꜔꜖dˠ
eat
k͡xʷɘ̃ːlˠ
1excl.sing.OBJ
m̥ˠaχʷ
3.sing.cl.10.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
wˤɨgʱʷɔ̃ː꜒ɴˠ
mouse
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ʒʲɡˠɔ꜒ɣˤ
catch
k͡xʷɘ̃ːlˠ
1excl.sing.OBJ
m̥ˠaχʷ
3.sing.cl.10.sing
ɳˠahpʲ-
cl.9
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʂʲkʼʷaː꜖ɡʷ
cat
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
sʷisʷ
1excl.sing.SUBJ
t͡ʃaːʃʲhkʷoː꜔ɴˤ
pat
k͡xʷɘ̃ːlˠ
1excl.sing.OBJ

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese that I bought.”

(31)

Complementation Strategies

Dlar forms complement clauses by nominalising the embedded verb. The nominalised form lacks finite verbal categories and behaves as a noun phrase. Subjects of nominalised clauses occur in the genitive case, and the nominalised verb establishes the semantic content of the complement.

The following example illustrate how complement clauses function:

Tẓʈʼo ṣkḥëmo tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo ħg̣ææħħi siininpḥæn#̃zho nqw̃ẓ tẓʈʼo χwænhtwë̠rdi rzohtoïnyón#̄ɹ̣ shohʈiædi ŕodi shiphoè̃to shopiami hmoaχw siininpḥæn#̃zho shoón#̃tẓ tẓʈʼo ħg̣ææħħi siininpḥæn#̃zho bḥiidjëëlo shohʈiædi zhip̣óti ŕodi shitwërroi̠tzi.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ sˤkʰˤɘmˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ɢˤɛːʜʲ sʲĩːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ᵑǃʷᵊ꜔zˤ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ χʷɛ̃htʷɘ꜖ɖʲ ʐˠhtˠɨ̃jõ̃꜒ɹˤ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ rˠᵊdʲ ʃʲpʰˠɜ꜔tˠ ʃˠpʲamʲ m̥ˠaχʷ sʲĩːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʃˠõ̃꜔t͡sˤ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ɢˤɛːʜʲ sʲĩːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ bʱˤiːt͡ʃɘːlˠ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ʒʲpˤotʲ rˠᵊdʲ ʃʲtʷɘɽˠi꜖t͡sʲ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
sˤkʰˤɘmˠ
ERG
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ɢˤɛːʜʲ
DAT
sʲiːqʼˠ-
cl.12
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ᵑǃʷᵊ꜔zˤ
girl
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
χʷɛ̃htʷ-
cl.2
ʐʲdʱˤɘ꜖ɖʲ
a
ʐˠhtˠɨjõ꜒ɹˤ
apple
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
rˠᵊdʲ
3.sing.cl.12.INDOBJ
ʃʲpʰˠɜ꜔tˠ
give
ʃˠpʲamʲ
3.sing.cl.2.OBJ
m̥ˠaχʷ
3.sing.cl.10.sing
sʲiːqʼˠ-
cl.12
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʃˠõ꜔t͡sˤ
boy
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ɢˤɛːʜʲ
DAT
sʲiːqʼˠ-
cl.12
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
bʱˤiːt͡ʃɘːlˠ
teacher
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ʒʲpˤotʲ
3.sing.cl.10.SUBJ
rˠᵊdʲ
3.sing.cl.12.INDOBJ
ʃʲtʷɘɽˠi꜖t͡sʲ
surprise

“It surprised the teacher that the boy had given the girl an apple.”

(32)

Quotes

Dlar expresses quoted or reported speech without a dedicated quotative particle. Quotations appear as ordinary clauses, distinguished only by the surrounding syntactic context or by the use of verbs of speaking.

Here is an example of how quotations are expressed:

Tẓʈʼo ṣkḥëmo siininpḥæn#̃zho shoón#̃tẓ tẓʈʼo ħg̣ææħħi siininpḥæn#̃zho nqw̃ẓ tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo tẓʈʼo swtiægki dtwō̃ʛi sodṭæn#̠tẓ shodtwëvi hmoaχw t͡ʂõ̠ğ̣ shohʈiædi chiuŕw ŕodi xxiïn#ː̄tzi kxwënënlo.

[t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ sˤkʰˤɘmˠ sʲĩːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ʃˠõ̃꜔t͡sˤ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ ɢˤɛːʜʲ sʲĩːpʰˤɛ̃̃꜔ʒˠ ᵑǃʷᵊ꜔zˤ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ sʷtʲɛkʼʲ tʼʷɔ꜒꜔ʛʲ sˠtʼˤɛ̃̃꜖t͡sˤ ʃˠtʼʷɘvʲ m̥ˠaχʷ t͡ʂˠᵊ꜔꜖ɣˤ ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ ᵏǀʰʲurʷ rˠᵊdʲ xʲɨ̃̃ː꜒t͡sʲ k͡xʷɘ̃ːlˠ]

t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
sˤkʰˤɘmˠ
ERG
sʲiːqʼˠ-
cl.12
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ʃˠõ꜔t͡sˤ
boy
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
ɢˤɛːʜʲ
DAT
sʲiːqʼˠ-
cl.12
pʰˤɛ̃꜔ʒˠ
the
ᵑǃʷᵊ꜔zˤ
girl
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
t͡sˤᵊʈʼˠ
no.owner.sing
sʷtʲɛkʼʲ
ACC
tʼʷɔ꜒꜔ʛʲ
2.sing
sˠtʼˤɛ̃꜖t͡sˤ
love
ʃˠtʼʷɘvʲ
2.sing.OBJ
m̥ˠaχʷ
3.sing.cl.10.sing
t͡ʂˠᵊ꜔꜖ɣˤ
1excl.sing
ʃˠhʈʲɛdʲ
PAST
ᵏǀʰʲurʷ
3.sing.cl.12.SUBJ
rˠᵊdʲ
3.sing.cl.12.INDOBJ
xʲɨ̃ː꜒t͡sʲ
tell
k͡xʷɘ̃ːlˠ
1excl.sing.OBJ

“The boy told the girl that he loved her.”

(33)

How to cite this grammar

Language Creator. 2026. A Grammar of Dlar. Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 25 July 2026. https://languagecreator.org/grammar/14K71

In BibTeX format:

@misc{LC-14K71,
  year         = 2026,
  author       = {{Language Creator}},
  title        = {A Grammar of {Dlar}},
  howpublished = {\url{https://languagecreator.org/grammar/14K71}},
  note         = {Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 25 July 2026}
}

Supplementary Materials

A collection of illustrative texts and a bilingual dictionary (English–Dlar / Dlar–English) accompany this grammar. The complete work – comprising the grammar, dictionary and texts – may also be downloaded in ODT or DOCX format.

Readers are encouraged to share observations or corrections via the feedback form. The present page may be accessed directly at:

https://languagecreator.org/grammar/14K71

Behind the scenes, the Language Creator stores the generated language in a JSON-based format known as ELD. The corresponding ELD file may be downloaded, edited as required, and reuploaded in order to regenerate the grammar, dictionary and texts.

To revisit the questionnaire settings used to generate this language, .

Language creation took 0.09 seconds; writing the grammar 0.12 seconds.