A Grammar of Ashana

Introduction

Scope and Purpose

This grammar provides a systematic description of the Ashana language (the 3rd one produced by the Language Creator), outlining its sound system, word formation and syntactic structure, with the aim of presenting a coherent account of the language as an integrated whole. Attention has been paid to both regular patterns and minor irregularities, as these together define the internal balance of the language.

The grammar is accompanied by a bilingual dictionary and a collection of illustrative texts, offering material for further study and comparison. The examples have been selected to demonstrate typical constructions and to give a sense of the language in extended use. The description is intended as a reference work for linguists and language enthusiasts alike, and as a foundation for any future research, teaching or creative adaptation of Ashana.

Typological Profile

It has the highly uncommon basic word order OVS, a small but genuine set of click consonants and postpositions.

Phonology

Phoneme Inventory

Consonants

Ashana has 23 consonant phonemes, a size that falls within a broadly average range.

It has a small but genuine set of click consonants, a system with marginal but genuine retroflex contrasts and a complete absence of phonemic voicing contrasts.

The table below presents the full inventory of consonant phonemes in Ashana. The chart lists all places and manners of articulation attested in the language.

labialdentalalveolarpostalveolarlateralpalatalretroflexvelarglottal
stopp t ʈ k
nasalm n ɲ ɳ ŋ
trill/tap/flapɽ
fricativef s ʃ ʂ x h
approximantw l j
affricatet͡ʃ
clickᵏǀ
click, nasalᵑǀ

Vowels

Ashana has 7 vowel qualities, forming a relatively large inventory. The system distinguishes several vowel categories, as indicated in the chart, offering a wide range of vocalic contrasts.

It has a triangular vowel system with few low vowels and front rounded vowels (these are cross-linguistically relatively uncommon, but occur in a number of well-known languages, including French, German, Turkish and Mandarin).

The table below presents the full inventory of vowel phonemes in Ashana. The system comprises the distinct vowel qualities listed in the chart.

front unroundedfront roundedcentralback
closei y u
midə
opena

Stress and Tones

Ashana has phonemic stress but no lexical tone. Stress consistently falls on the first vowel of the root, and no contrastive tonal distinctions are made.

Phonological Processes

Vowel Harmony

The language employs vowel harmony. To be specific, the following vowels change to match the first vowel of the root: /u/ becomes /y/.

Writing System

Introduction

Ashana is normally written using the Cyrillic alphabet, a script with a long and varied history across Eastern Europe and northern Asia. In this grammar, phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are also used to give an unambiguous representation of sound.

The conventions adopted here follow standard Cyrillic practice for the language where that exists; where they do not, the IPA transcription should be taken as authoritative.

Orthography

Here are the various components of the orthography:

Simple letters

ə /ə/а /a/в /w/г /h/
и /i/к /k/л /l/м /m/
н /n/н̇ /ɳ/п /p/р̇ /ɽ/
с /s/с̇ /ʂ/т /t/т̇ /ʈ/
у /u/ф /f/х /x/ч /t͡ʃ/
ш /ʃ/ј /j/њ /ɲ/ү /y/
ӈ /ŋ/

Multi-letter combinations such as digraphs

əː /əː/аа /aː/ай /ai/
аў /au/ии /iː/уу /uː/
ҁн /ᵑǀ/ҁт /ᵏǀ/үү /yː/

Word Classes and Morphology

Number and Gender

Number

Ashana does not have grammatical number.

Gender

Ashana has the following genders:

Gender fem – for instance: əњаӈа ‘apple’, айгају ‘child’, аймаја ‘south’, айн̇ун̇и ‘tiger’, айшили ‘east’, акули ‘day’, апас̇и ‘sand’, апаја ‘cheese’, аўван̇у ‘urine’, аўсуви ‘seed’, иигивə ‘tooth’, иимəн̇ə ‘dog’, ихашə ‘smoke’, иӈəт̇ə ‘egg’, укəња ‘teacher’, ур̇əлу ‘night’, уус̇уња ‘mother’, уӈана ‘woman’, үсича ‘face’, үчучə ‘west’.

Gender masc – for instance: əːфичи ‘chair’, əмин̇у ‘thin’, əфикə ‘back’, əшат̇и ‘straight’, аачата ‘round’, асаса ‘small’, иикəки ‘little’, иичан̇а ‘dry’, икити ‘mammal’, икичə ‘net’, ис̇əр̇и ‘wet’, ијəсу ‘left’, ут̇ина ‘tree’, уун̇ана ‘bark’, уфəњу ‘people’, үвит̇ə ‘green’, үнафи ‘red’, үнир̇и ‘long’, үүшиги ‘furious’, үүӈат̇ə ‘bottle’.

Gender neut – for instance: əкифи ‘speech’, əчар̇а ‘sea’, аајəмə ‘colour’, айвију ‘nose’, айкифа ‘plain’, аймита ‘root’, айфапи ‘breast’, алин̇ə ‘lamb’, ар̇уӈа ‘earth’, ањипу ‘fish’, аўсиха ‘embrace’, аўтипи ‘bosom’, игəхə ‘mouth’, итива ‘star’, ичави ‘snow’, увир̇и ‘leg’, унəњи ‘flower’, уупихə ‘friend’, уухапи ‘sound’, үсиӈə ‘land’.

The Nominal Phrase

Nominal phrases in Ashana can be exemplified by the following example:

Њəӈилаха пə чусу ки салифифа фуупа сəːну хə сəхуӈана фуусу сəн̇əːњипи фуупа Чуу.

[ɲəˈŋilaxa ˈpə ˈt͡ʃusu ki saˈlififa ˈfuːpa ˈsəːnu xə səˈxuŋana ˈfuːsu səˈɳəːɲipi ˈfuːpa ˈt͡ʃuː]

ɲ-
plur
əŋ-
ACC
ˈilaxa
mouse
ˈpə
three
ˈt͡ʃu
yon
-su
fem
ki
3.sing.masc.POSS
s-
sing
al-
GEN
ˈififa
blind
ˈfuː
the
-pa
masc
ˈsəːnu
catch

indicative
s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈuŋana
woman
ˈfuː
the
-su
fem
s-
sing
əɳ-
LOC
ˈəːɲipi
knife
ˈfuː
the
-pa
masc
ˈt͡ʃuː
COMIT

“The woman with the knife caught those three blind mice.”

(1)

In the following, we shall look at the various components in more details.

There is one type of clitic in the nominal phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing possessor. a clitic expressing possessor, comprising гə /hə/ ‘1incl.sing’, вə /wə/ ‘1excl.sing’, ну /nu/ ‘2.sing’, ки /ki/ ‘3.sing.masc’, р̇а /ɽa/ ‘3.sing.fem’, чə /t͡ʃə/ ‘3.sing.neut’, са /sa/ ‘1incl.plur’, на /na/ ‘1excl.plur’, ги /hi/ ‘2.plur’, су /su/ ‘3.plur.masc’, фу /fu/ ‘3.plur.fem’ and ту /tu/ ‘3.plur.neut’.

The morphology of the elements of the nominal phrase, i.e., nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns, is described below, as is the way that possession is expressed in Ashana.

The Noun

The noun in Ashana consists of first, an obligatory prefix expressing number, comprising с- /s-/ ‘sing’ and њ- /ɲ-/ ‘plur’; second, an obligatory prefix expressing case, comprising əх- /əx-/ ‘NOM’, уј- /uj-/ ‘ERG’, əӈ- /əŋ-/ ‘ACC’, ал- /al-/ ‘GEN’, ан- /an-/ ‘DAT’, ус- /us-/ ‘INS’, əл- /əl-/ ‘VOC’, ум- /um-/ ‘ALL’, əн̇- /əɳ-/ ‘LOC’, ат- /at-/ ‘ABL’ and уч- /ut͡ʃ-/ ‘PART’; and finally, third, the root.

The noun displays the following derivational morphology: two suffixes, namely -ха /-xa/ ‘little’ and -ки /-ki/ ‘big’

The Adjective

In Ashana, the adjective has the following structure: the root followed by an optional suffix expressing number, comprising -н̇и /-ɳi/ ‘plur’.

Numerals

The numeral in Ashana stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Determiners

In Ashana, the determiner has the following structure: the root followed by an obligatory suffix expressing gender, comprising -па /-pa/ ‘masc’, -су /-su/ ‘fem’ and -ну /-nu/ ‘neut’.

Pronouns

The pronoun in Ashana stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Сəӈайн̇ун̇и фуусу ҁтињу ху ҁнайна сəхəːт̇уја хə.

[səˈŋaiɳuɳi ˈfuːsu ˈᵏǀiɲu ˈxu ˈᵑǀaina səˈxəːʈuja xə]

s-
sing
əŋ-
ACC
ˈaiɳuɳi
tiger
ˈfuː
the
-su
fem
ˈᵏǀiɲu
kill
ˈxu
because
ˈᵑǀaina
be
s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈəːʈuja
happy

indicative

“Because the two of us [not including the listener] killed the tiger, we [including the listener] are all now happy.”

(2)

Here is an example where neither of the pronouns are stressed:

Фу куку хə.

[ˈfu ˈkuku xə]

ˈfu
3.sing.fem
ˈkuku
love

indicative

“He (the boy) loves her (the girl).”

(3)

But here, the word corresponding to he is stressed:

Фу куку хə лай.

[ˈfu ˈkuku xə ˈlai]

ˈfu
3.sing.fem
ˈkuku
love

indicative
ˈlai
3.sing.masc

He loves her.”

(4)

And here, it is the one translated as her that is stressed:

Фу куку хə.

[ˈfu ˈkuku xə]

ˈfu
3.sing.fem
ˈkuku
love

indicative

“He loves her.”

(5)

Proper Nouns

СəӈАр̇аӈу фуусу нир̇и хə сəхИпифа фуупа.

[səˈŋaɽaŋu ˈfuːsu ˈniɽi xə səˈxipifa ˈfuːpa]

s-
sing
əŋ-
ACC
ˈaɽaŋu
Arangu
ˈfuː
the
-su
fem
ˈniɽi
hate

indicative
s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈipifa
Ipifa
ˈfuː
the
-pa
masc

“Ipifa hates Arangu.”

(6)

Possession

сəхəњаӈа фуусу ки салир̇уша фуупа

[səˈxəɲaŋa ˈfuːsu ki saˈliɽuʃa ˈfuːpa]

s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈəɲaŋa
apple
ˈfuː
the
-su
fem
ki
3.sing.masc.POSS
s-
sing
al-
GEN
ˈiɽuʃa
boy
ˈfuː
the
-pa
masc

“the boy’s apple”

(7)
сəхəњаӈа фуусу ки лай

[səˈxəɲaŋa ˈfuːsu ki ˈlai]

s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈəɲaŋa
apple
ˈfuː
the
-su
fem
ki
3.sing.masc.POSS
ˈlai
3.sing.masc

“his (the boy’s) apple”

(8)
сəхəњаӈа фуусу вə

[səˈxəɲaŋa ˈfuːsu wə]

s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈəɲaŋa
apple
ˈfuː
the
-su
fem

1excl.sing.POSS

“my apple”

(9)
Сəӈаўфан̇и фуупа чə салаўлəфа фууну ну фан̇и хə сəхипанə фуусу ки салахус̇у фуупа.

[səˈŋaufaɳi ˈfuːpa t͡ʃə saˈlauləfa ˈfuːnu nu ˈfaɳi xə səˈxipanə ˈfuːsu ki saˈlaxuʂu ˈfuːpa]

s-
sing
əŋ-
ACC
ˈaufaɳi
son
ˈfuː
the
-pa
masc
t͡ʃə
3.sing.neut.POSS
s-
sing
al-
GEN
ˈauləfa
neighbour
ˈfuː
the
-nu
neut
nu
2.sing.POSS
ˈfaɳi
kiss

indicative
s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈipanə
daughter
ˈfuː
the
-su
fem
ki
3.sing.masc.POSS
s-
sing
al-
GEN
ˈaxuʂu
hunter
ˈfuː
the
-pa
masc

“The hunter’s daughter kissed your neighbour’s son.”

(10)

Derivation

Ashana has a few derivational processes. To illustrate this, let us start with a simple noun phrase:

сəхалин̇ə гүнү

[səˈxaliɳə ˈhyny]

s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈaliɳə
lamb
ˈhy
a
-ny
neut

“a lamb”

(11)

In the following, the word for little becomes an affix attached to lamb:

сəхалин̇əха гүнү

[səˈxaliɳəxa ˈhyny]

s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈaliɳə
lamb
-xa
little
ˈhy
a
-ny
neut

“a little lamb”

(12)

Compounding

Verbs

Inflectional Categories

The verbal phrase clitics in Ashana fall into two categories, proclitics and enclitics: first, a clitic expressing voice, comprising с̇и /ʂi/ ‘passive’; second, a clitic expressing ta, comprising њə /ɲə/ ‘PAST’; and finally, third, a clitic expressing mode, comprising хə /xə/ ‘indicative’, на /na/ ‘conditional’ and ҁти /ᵏǀi/ ‘optative’.

In addition, the verb is structured like this: an optional prefix expressing negation, comprising гə- /hə-/ ‘NEG’ followed by the root.

The verb displays the following derivational morphology: two suffixes, namely -ӈи /-ŋi/ ‘begin’ and -ши /-ʃi/ ‘stop’

Чаа куку хə.

[ˈt͡ʃaː ˈkuku xə]

ˈt͡ʃaː
2.sing
ˈkuku
love

indicative

“I love you.”

(13)

Adverbs Minor Classes

Adpositions

There is one type of clitic in the adpositional phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing root.

сəхаўчəла сəхупухə фуупа тəː

[səˈxaut͡ʃəla səˈxupuxə ˈfuːpa ˈtəː]

s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈaut͡ʃəla
surface
s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈupuxə
table
ˈfuː
the
-pa
masc
ˈtəː
in

“on the table”

(14)
сəхаўфас̇а сəхикивə фуупа фаа

[səˈxaufaʂa səˈxikiwə ˈfuːpa ˈfaː]

s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈaufaʂa
inside
s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈikiwə
box
ˈfuː
the
-pa
masc
ˈfaː
to

“into the box”

(15)
нуу Чуу

[ˈnuː ˈt͡ʃuː]

ˈnuː
1excl.sing
ˈt͡ʃuː
COMIT

“with me”

(16)

Syntax

Basic Clause Structure

Constituent Order

Constituent order describes the typical arrangement of the subject (S), verb (V) and object (O) in simple declarative clauses. It is a fundamental parameter in grammatical description and forms one of the clearest ways of characterising the overall structure of a language’s clause system.

Ashana has Object–Verb–Subject (OVS) as its basic constituent order. Clauses begin with the object, followed by the verb, with the subject in final position. This is a rare but attested configuration in the world’s languages.

The following examples illustrate the basic, unmarked, constituent order in Ashana.

Сəӈахус̇у фуупа ҁтињу хə сəхафава фуупа.

[səˈŋaxuʂu ˈfuːpa ˈᵏǀiɲu xə səˈxafawa ˈfuːpa]

s-
sing
əŋ-
ACC
ˈaxuʂu
hunter
ˈfuː
the
-pa
masc
ˈᵏǀiɲu
kill

indicative
s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈafawa
jaguar
ˈfuː
the
-pa
masc

“The jaguar killed the hunter.”

(17)
Сəӈиимəн̇ə фуусу р̇а салипанə фуусу ки салахус̇у фуупа р̇аата хə сəхис̇ани фуусу.

[səˈŋiːməɳə ˈfuːsu ɽa saˈlipanə ˈfuːsu ki saˈlaxuʂu ˈfuːpa ˈɽaːta xə səˈxiʂani ˈfuːsu]

s-
sing
əŋ-
ACC
ˈiːməɳə
dog
ˈfuː
the
-su
fem
ɽa
3.sing.fem.POSS
s-
sing
al-
GEN
ˈipanə
daughter
ˈfuː
the
-su
fem
ki
3.sing.masc.POSS
s-
sing
al-
GEN
ˈaxuʂu
hunter
ˈfuː
the
-pa
masc
ˈɽaːta
eat

indicative
s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈiʂani
lion
ˈfuː
the
-su
fem

“The lion ate the hunter’s daughter’s dog.”

(18)

The language has a fixed constituent order, and major phrases normally appear in a predictable position in the clause. Movement for discourse reasons is highly restricted: topics and foci are expressed not by rearranging elements, but through dedicated constructions such as clefts, focus clauses or topic–comment frames. Constituents remain continuous, and both the relative order of phrases and the internal structure of each phrase are stable. As a result, significant deviations from the basic word order are ungrammatical, and discourse structure is managed through these specialised constructions rather than through word-order variation.

Noun Phrases

Structure and Order

The internal structure of noun phrases in Ashana reveals typologically significant preferences in the ordering of nominal constituents. This includes the position of adjectives, numerals, and possessors relative to the noun, each of which can offer clues to the overall headedness of the language.

Possessive constructions are head-initial: the possessed noun precedes the possessor. For instance, Ashana expresses “the child’s toy” with the equivalent of “toy child”. This structure is typologically rarer and often co-occurs with verb-initial syntax or with grammatical marking on the noun.

сəхар̇əгə фуупа чə салуупихə фууну ки салаўфан̇и фуупа ну

[səˈxaɽəhə ˈfuːpa t͡ʃə saˈluːpixə ˈfuːnu ki saˈlaufaɳi ˈfuːpa nu]

s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈaɽəhə
book
ˈfuː
the
-pa
masc
t͡ʃə
3.sing.neut.POSS
s-
sing
al-
GEN
ˈuːpixə
friend
ˈfuː
the
-nu
neut
ki
3.sing.masc.POSS
s-
sing
al-
GEN
ˈaufaɳi
son
ˈfuː
the
-pa
masc
nu
2.sing.POSS

“your son’s friend’s book”

(19)

Conjunctions

Here is an example of a conjunction.

Њəӈафава фуупа нү њəӈайн̇ун̇и фуусу нү њəӈис̇ани фуусу ҁтињу хə сəхахус̇у фуупа.

[ɲəˈŋafawa ˈfuːpa ˈny ɲəˈŋaiɳuɳi ˈfuːsu ˈny ɲəˈŋiʂani ˈfuːsu ˈᵏǀiɲu xə səˈxaxuʂu ˈfuːpa]

ɲ-
plur
əŋ-
ACC
ˈafawa
jaguar
ˈfuː
the
-pa
masc
ˈny
and
ɲ-
plur
əŋ-
ACC
ˈaiɳuɳi
tiger
ˈfuː
the
-su
fem
ˈny
and
ɲ-
plur
əŋ-
ACC
ˈiʂani
lion
ˈfuː
the
-su
fem
ˈᵏǀiɲu
kill

indicative
s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈaxuʂu
hunter
ˈfuː
the
-pa
masc

“The hunter killed the jaguars, the tigers and the lions.”

(20)

Modifiers and Determiners

The ordering of demonstratives, articles (if present), and other modifiers in Ashana provides further insight into the structure of the noun phrase. These elements frequently exhibit fixed positions and may reveal whether the language favours head-initial or head-final patterns.

Complex Sentences

Relative Clauses

Ashana uses the correlative strategy to form relative clauses. The relative clause is introduced by a dedicated relativiser and appears as an independent clause. The main clause contains a demonstrative that corresponds to the relativiser and identifies the element being modified. The relative clause precedes the main clause when used on its own, and follows the head noun when it functions as a modifier. The internal structure of both clauses is fully finite.

To illustrate how relative clauses work, let us begin with a simple sentence:

Сəӈəкачи фууну мумə хə.

[səˈŋəkat͡ʃi ˈfuːnu ˈmumə xə]

s-
sing
əŋ-
ACC
ˈəkat͡ʃi
cat
ˈfuː
the
-nu
neut
ˈmumə
pat

indicative

“I patted the cat.”

(21)

We can now add a relative clause modifying the noun:

Сəӈилаха фуусу сəːну хə наа мумə хə шаў.

[səˈŋilaxa ˈfuːsu ˈsəːnu xə ˈnaː ˈmumə xə ˈʃau]

s-
sing
əŋ-
ACC
ˈilaxa
mouse
ˈfuː
the
-su
fem
ˈsəːnu
catch

indicative
ˈnaː
3.sing.neut
ˈmumə
pat

indicative
ˈʃau
then

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse.”

(22)

Relative clauses may themselves contain other relative clauses:

Сəӈапаја фуусу р̇аата хə фу сəːну хə шаў наа мумə хə шаў.

[səˈŋapaja ˈfuːsu ˈɽaːta xə ˈfu ˈsəːnu xə ˈʃau ˈnaː ˈmumə xə ˈʃau]

s-
sing
əŋ-
ACC
ˈapaja
cheese
ˈfuː
the
-su
fem
ˈɽaːta
eat

indicative
ˈfu
3.sing.fem
ˈsəːnu
catch

indicative
ˈʃau
then
ˈnaː
3.sing.neut
ˈmumə
pat

indicative
ˈʃau
then

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese.”

(23)

Finally, here is an example containing several layers of embedding:

Фу сəːфи хə фу р̇аата хə шаў фу сəːну хə шаў наа мумə хə шаў.

[ˈfu ˈsəːfi xə ˈfu ˈɽaːta xə ˈʃau ˈfu ˈsəːnu xə ˈʃau ˈnaː ˈmumə xə ˈʃau]

ˈfu
3.sing.fem
ˈsəːfi
buy

indicative
ˈfu
3.sing.fem
ˈɽaːta
eat

indicative
ˈʃau
then
ˈfu
3.sing.fem
ˈsəːnu
catch

indicative
ˈʃau
then
ˈnaː
3.sing.neut
ˈmumə
pat

indicative
ˈʃau
then

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese that I bought.”

(24)

Complementation Strategies

Ashana marks complement clauses with subordinating verbal morphology. The embedded verb is fully finite and carries a subordinating suffix that identifies the clause as a complement. No structural changes occur within the clause apart from this verbal marking.

The following example illustrate how complement clauses function:

Санукəња фуусу т̇аўна сəӈəњаӈа гүсү санаўкан̇а фуусу гаас̇и хə сəхир̇уша фуупа.

[saˈnukəɲa ˈfuːsu ˈʈauna səˈŋəɲaŋa ˈhysy saˈnaukaɳa ˈfuːsu ˈhaːʂi xə səˈxiɽuʃa ˈfuːpa]

s-
sing
an-
DAT
ˈukəɲa
teacher
ˈfuː
the
-su
fem
ˈʈauna
surprise
s-
sing
əŋ-
ACC
ˈəɲaŋa
apple
ˈhy
a
-sy
fem
s-
sing
an-
DAT
ˈaukaɳa
girl
ˈfuː
the
-su
fem
ˈhaːʂi
give

indicative
s-
sing
əx-
NOM
ˈiɽuʃa
boy
ˈfuː
the
-pa
masc

“It surprised the teacher that the boy had given the girl an apple.”

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Quotes

Here is an example of how quotations are expressed:

Miscellaneous

Supplementary Materials

A collection of illustrative texts and a bilingual dictionary (English–Ashana / Ashana–English) accompany this grammar. The complete work – comprising the grammar, dictionary and texts – may also be downloaded in ODT or DOCX format.

Readers are encouraged to share observations or corrections via the feedback form. The present page may be accessed directly at:

https://languagecreator.org/grammar/2GNGG

Behind the scenes, the Language Creator stores the generated language in a JSON-based format known as ELD. The corresponding ELD file may be downloaded, edited as required, and reuploaded in order to regenerate the grammar, dictionary and texts.

How to cite this grammar:

Language Creator. 2026. A Grammar of Ashana. Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.90, on 13 April 2026. https://languagecreator.org/grammar/2GNGG

In BibTeX format:

@misc{LC-2GNGG,
  year         = 2026,
  author       = {{Language Creator}},
  title        = {A Grammar of {Ashana}},
  howpublished = {\url{https://languagecreator.org/grammar/2GNGG}},
  note         = {Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.90, on 13 April 2026}
}

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