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A Grammar of Ver

Introduction

Scope and Purpose

This grammar provides a systematic description of the Ver language (the 1487th one produced by the Language Creator), outlining its sound system, word formation and syntactic structure, with the aim of presenting a coherent account of the language as an integrated whole. Attention has been paid to both regular patterns and minor irregularities, as these together define the internal balance of the language.

The grammar is accompanied by a bilingual dictionary and a collection of illustrative texts, offering material for further study and comparison. The examples have been selected to demonstrate typical constructions and to give a sense of the language in extended use. The description is intended as a reference work for linguists and language enthusiasts alike, and as a foundation for any future research, teaching or creative adaptation of Ver.

Typological Profile

It has a rich system of noun classes and a relatively uncommon VOS word order.

Phonology

Phoneme Inventory

Consonants

Ver has 24 consonant phonemes, a size that falls within a broadly average range.

It has a notable dental–alveolar contrast across several manners and a noticeable presence of pharyngealised phonemes.

The table below presents the full inventory of consonant phonemes in Ver. The chart lists all places and manners of articulation attested in the language.

labialalveolarphar. alveolarpostalveolarlateralpalatalvelarglottal
stopp b d t dˤ tˤ k ɡ
nasalm n nˤ ɲ ŋ
fricativef s sˤ ʃ h
approximantʋ ɾ j
affricatet͡ʃ
implosiveɓ

Vowels

Ver has 9 vowel qualities, forming a relatively large inventory. The system distinguishes several vowel categories, as indicated in the chart, offering a wide range of vocalic contrasts.

It has phonologically distinctive back unrounded vowels.

The table below presents the full inventory of vowel phonemes in Ver. The system comprises the distinct vowel qualities listed in the chart.

frontcentralback unroundedback rounded
closei ɯ u
mide ɤ o
opena

Stress and Tones

Ver has neither phonemic stress nor lexical tone. Prosodic prominence and pitch variation are determined by pragmatic and discourse factors rather than by lexical contrasts.

Phonological Processes

Vowel Harmony

Vowel harmony does not exist in this language.

Writing System

Introduction

Ver is normally written using the Cyrillic alphabet, a script with a long and varied history across Eastern Europe and northern Asia. In this grammar, phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are also used to give an unambiguous representation of sound.

The conventions adopted here follow standard Cyrillic practice for the language where that exists; where they do not, the IPA transcription should be taken as authoritative.

Orthography

Here are the various components of the orthography:

Simple letters

а /a/б /b/б̱ /ɓ/в /ʋ/
г /h/д /d/е /e/и /i/
к /k/м /m/н /n/о /o/
п /p/р /ɾ/с /s/т /t/
у /u/ф /f/ч /t͡ʃ/ш /ʃ/
ы /ɯ/ӹ /ɤ/ј /j/њ /ɲ/
ґ /ɡ/ӈ /ŋ/

Multi-letter combinations such as digraphs

ай /ai/аў /au/дъ /dˤ/
нъ /nˤ/съ /sˤ/тъ /tˤ/

Word Classes and Morphology

Number and Gender

Number

Ver does not have grammatical number.

Gender

Ver has the following noun classes:

Class cl.1 – for instance: венъ ‘year’, вер ‘Ver’, вӹнъ ‘day’, гагусъ ‘bark’, дафаш ‘sand’, дъес ‘night’, пекун ‘money’, съанъ ‘rain’, съомиґ ‘salt’, тъонъик ‘fog’, тӹјаӈ ‘flower’, футъоњ ‘snow’, чаўм ‘tree’, чаўњ ‘time’, чобитъ ‘dust’, чуб̱ ‘little’, шына ‘slime’, јотик ‘seed’, њыњеб ‘forest’.

Class cl.2 – for instance: бис ‘west’, дъӹву ‘urine’, дып ‘top’, дыч ‘surface’, каўј ‘inside’, нупӹв ‘faeces’, нъопысъ ‘rope’, ныб ‘south’, тањаў ‘anus’, тъен ‘east’, чидъу ‘river’, шадъун ‘stick’, њӹр ‘north’.

Class cl.3 – for instance: бенъысъ ‘breath’, беч ‘name’, вӹв ‘manner’, гӹш ‘idea’, диш ‘sound’, кемыш ‘dialect’, нъом ‘fight’, нъуш ‘speech’, чашив ‘embrace’, шайш ‘language’, њун ‘colour’.

Class cl.4 – for instance: гоб̱айп ‘guts’, дъанъодъ ‘cheese’, кайк ‘water’, киб ‘heart’, мунъус ‘belly’, мусъ ‘meat’, неб ‘egg’, новӹ ‘apple’, нъӹсъаф ‘wheat’, робайј ‘root’, фиб ‘blood’, фифаўп ‘liver’.

Class cl.5 – for instance: б̱ек ‘son’, б̱ирип ‘mammal’, б̱оњаўп ‘hunter’, боґодъ ‘snake’, дем ‘child’, диб̱уґ ‘mouse’, досъ ‘wife’, дъасањ ‘lion’, дъисъаўч ‘lamb’, кифип ‘farmer’, мим ‘fish’, нъеп ‘human being’, нъу ‘mother’, путъ ‘boy’, раб̱ ‘friend’, съитъ ‘daughter’, тъаўј ‘husband’, шит ‘dog’, шодъос ‘wild boar’, њијӹнъ ‘worm’.

Class cl.6 – for instance: б̱а ‘city’, б̱афайч ‘bosom’, б̱об̱аўд ‘horn’, б̱уф ‘eye’, б̱ӹк ‘hand’, ваб ‘foot’, вењес ‘knee’, вӹтъ ‘head’, неб̱ун ‘tail’, нъымад ‘fingernail’, пасъиш ‘wing’, раруњ ‘fat’, съат ‘face’, тъӹшаӈ ‘breast’, тъыпайдъ ‘neck’, фыт ‘leg’, чуб ‘mouth’, ґаўб̱ ‘ear’, ґыдъ ‘skin’, ӈеныј ‘penis’.

Class cl.7 – for instance: бер ‘book’, гадосъ ‘net’, гым ‘leaf’, дораўґ ‘machine’, дъынъ ‘knife’, мош ‘bed’, нубиб̱ ‘bottle’, нӹӈисъ ‘mortar’, сӹмаб ‘grass’, сынъаўд ‘brick’, тайњ ‘table’, тидъуч ‘tower’, чут ‘chair’, чыӈаўтъ ‘plain’, шатъайп ‘binoculars’, шунитъ ‘umbrella’, јуп ‘house’, њит ‘road’, њовед ‘box’.

Class cl.8 – for instance: гињӹм ‘lake’, дъуш ‘fire’, кин ‘land’, нъаўн ‘star’, нъӹд ‘sun’, нъытъ ‘stone’, пиґ ‘moon’, съадеб ‘smoke’, съӹп ‘fruit’, тупач ‘ice’, тъич ‘wind’, фир ‘sky’, фоб ‘earth’, ченач ‘cloud’, јубаф ‘ash’, јӹнъ ‘sea’, њычодъ ‘mountain’.

Class cl.9 – for instance: б̱ыӈ ‘long’, вайд ‘green’, гыв ‘red’, дъинъ ‘full’, дъојаш ‘school’, кунаўдъ ‘student’, нек ‘near’, нокӹк ‘religion’, пид ‘old’, ретъ ‘round’, сар ‘heavy’, съај ‘wide’, съибуб̱ ‘medicine’, съидъ ‘other’, съӹф ‘large’, тинъ ‘new’, тъој ‘some’, чайњ ‘rotten’, шис ‘whole’, шӹп ‘correct’.

The Nominal Phrase

Nominal phrases in Ver can be exemplified by the following example:

Ґаситъосъ ґитъ да чайј диб̱уґ татъ касъ пат датъ тъичад дъынъ данъ.

[ɡasitˤosˤ ɡitˤ da t͡ʃaij diɓuɡ tatˤ kasˤ pat datˤ tˤit͡ʃad dˤɯnˤ danˤ]

ɡas
catch -i
PAST -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP ɡitˤ
blind da
the t͡ʃaij
three diɓuɡ
mouse ta
yon -tˤ
cl.5 kasˤ
3.cl.3.POSS pat
woman da
the -tˤ
cl.5 tˤit͡ʃad
COMIT dˤɯnˤ
knife da
the -nˤ
cl.7

“The woman with the knife caught those three blind mice.”

 (1)

In the following, we shall look at the various components in more details.

There is one type of clitic in the nominal phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing possessor. a clitic expressing possessor, comprising тињ /tiɲ/ ‘1incl’, шик /ʃik/ ‘1excl’, ӈад /ŋad/ ‘2’, съи /sˤi/ ‘3.cl.1’, њиб̱ /ɲiɓ/ ‘3.cl.2’, касъ /kasˤ/ ‘3.cl.3’, ґесъ /ɡesˤ/ ‘3.cl.4’, ӈӹ /ŋɤ/ ‘3.cl.5’, рӹс /ɾɤs/ ‘3.cl.6’, тусъ /tusˤ/ ‘3.cl.7’, нъуб /nˤub/ ‘3.cl.8’ and тар /taɾ/ ‘3.cl.9’.

The morphology of the elements of the nominal phrase, i.e., nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns, is described below, as is the way that possession is expressed in Ver.

The Noun

The noun in Ver stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

The noun displays the following derivational morphology: two suffixes, namely -пӹ /-pɤ/ ‘little’ and -њӹ /-ɲɤ/ ‘big’

The Adjective

In Ver, the adjective has the following structure: the root followed by an obligatory suffix expressing case, comprising -ир /-iɾ/ ‘NOM’, -ук /-uk/ ‘DAT’, -иб̱ /-iɓ/ ‘INS’, -итъ /-itˤ/ ‘VOC’, -уј /-uj/ ‘ALL’, -енъ /-enˤ/ ‘LOC’, -уд /-ud/ ‘ABL’ and -есъ /-esˤ/ ‘PART’.

Numerals

The numeral in Ver stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Determiners

In Ver, the determiner has the following structure: the root followed by an obligatory suffix expressing gender, comprising -п /-p/ ‘cl.1’, -ш /-ʃ/ ‘cl.2’, -съ /-sˤ/ ‘cl.3’, -с /-s/ ‘cl.4’, -тъ /-tˤ/ ‘cl.5’, -ґ /-ɡ/ ‘cl.6’, -нъ /-nˤ/ ‘cl.7’, -дъ /-dˤ/ ‘cl.8’ and -в /-ʋ/ ‘cl.9’.

Pronouns

The pronoun in Ver stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

In Ver, subject pronouns (but not object pronouns ones) are dropped unless they are stressed. Here is an example where neither of the pronouns are stressed:

Канетъосъ баўґ.

[kanetˤosˤ bauɡ]

kan
love -e
PRES -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP bauɡ
3.cl.5

“He (the boy) loves her (the girl).”

 (2)

But here, the word corresponding to he (i.e., the subject) is stressed:

Канетъосъ баўґ баўґ.

[kanetˤosˤ bauɡ bauɡ]

kan
love -e
PRES -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP bauɡ
3.cl.5 bauɡ
3.cl.5

“He loves her.”

 (3)

Proper Nouns

Јетуӈетъосъ Дъирайсъ датъ Съамит датъ.

[jetuŋetˤosˤ dˤiɾaisˤ datˤ sˤamit datˤ]

jetuŋ
hate -e
PRES -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP dˤiɾaisˤ
Dirais da
the -tˤ
cl.5 sˤamit
Samit da
the -tˤ
cl.5

“Samit hates Dirais.”

 (4)

Possession

путъ датъ новӹ дас ӈӹ

[putˤ datˤ noʋɤ das ŋɤ]

putˤ
boy da
the -tˤ
cl.5 noʋɤ
apple da
the -s
cl.4 ŋɤ
3.cl.5.POSS

“the boy’s apple”

 (5)
баўґ новӹ дас ӈӹ

[bauɡ noʋɤ das ŋɤ]

bauɡ
3.cl.5 noʋɤ
apple da
the -s
cl.4 ŋɤ
3.cl.5.POSS

“his (the boy’s) apple”

 (6)
новӹ дас шик

[noʋɤ das ʃik]

noʋɤ
apple da
the -s
cl.4 ʃik
1excl.POSS

“my apple”

 (7)
Б̱ијетитъосъ тъојаўш датъ ӈад б̱ек датъ ӈӹ б̱оњаўп датъ съитъ датъ ӈӹ.

[ɓijetitˤosˤ tˤojauʃ datˤ ŋad ɓek datˤ ŋɤ ɓoɲaup datˤ sˤitˤ datˤ ŋɤ]

ɓijet
kiss -i
PAST -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP tˤojauʃ
neighbour da
the -tˤ
cl.5 ŋad
2.POSS ɓek
son da
the -tˤ
cl.5 ŋɤ
3.cl.5.POSS ɓoɲaup
hunter da
the -tˤ
cl.5 sˤitˤ
daughter da
the -tˤ
cl.5 ŋɤ
3.cl.5.POSS

“The hunter’s daughter kissed your neighbour’s son.”

 (8)

Derivation

Ver has a few derivational processes. To illustrate this, let us start with a simple noun phrase:

дъисъаўч съатъ

[dˤisˤaut͡ʃ sˤatˤ]

dˤisˤaut͡ʃ
lamb sˤa
a -tˤ
cl.5

“a lamb”

 (9)

In the following, the word for little becomes an affix attached to lamb:

дъисъаўчпӹ съатъ

[dˤisˤaut͡ʃpɤ sˤatˤ]

dˤisˤaut͡ʃ
lamb -pɤ
little sˤa
a -tˤ
cl.5

“a little lamb”

 (10)

Compounding

Verbs

Inflectional Categories

All verbal phrase clitics in Ver are enclitics (placed finally), and there are three types: first, a clitic expressing mode, comprising њӹњ /ɲɤɲ/ ‘imperative’, нъиш /nˤiʃ/ ‘conditional’ and вај /ʋaj/ ‘optative’; second, a clitic expressing negation, comprising фудъ /fudˤ/ ‘NEG’; and finally, third, a clitic expressing question, comprising чос /t͡ʃos/ ‘Q’.

In addition, the verb is structured like this: first, the root; second, an obligatory suffix expressing ta, comprising -е /-e/ ‘PRES’ and -и /-i/ ‘PAST’; third, an obligatory suffix expressing voice, comprising -тъ /-tˤ/ ‘active’ and -н /-n/ ‘passive’; and finally, fourth, an obligatory suffix expressing comp, comprising -осъ /-osˤ/ ‘not.COMP’ and -уф /-uf/ ‘COMP’.

The verb displays the following derivational morphology: two suffixes, namely -ав /-aʋ/ ‘begin’ and -иб̱ /-iɓ/ ‘stop’

Канетъосъ съуб.

[kanetˤosˤ sˤub]

kan
love -e
PRES -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP sˤub
2

“I love you.”

 (11)

Adverbs Minor Classes

Adpositions

There is one type of clitic in the adpositional phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing root.

њоӈ тайњ данъ

[ɲoŋ taiɲ danˤ]

ɲoŋ
in_surface taiɲ
table da
the -nˤ
cl.7

“on the table”

 (12)
мит њовед данъ

[mit ɲoʋed danˤ]

mit
to_inside ɲoʋed
box da
the -nˤ
cl.7

“into the box”

 (13)
тъичад ґунъ

[tˤit͡ʃad ɡunˤ]

tˤit͡ʃad
COMIT ɡunˤ
1excl

“with me”

 (14)

Syntax

Basic Clause Structure

Constituent Order

Constituent order describes the typical arrangement of the subject (S), verb (V) and object (O) in simple declarative clauses. It is a fundamental parameter in grammatical description and forms one of the clearest ways of characterising the overall structure of a language’s clause system.

Ver displays Verb–Object–Subject (VOS) as its primary word order. The verb is followed by the object, with the subject appearing clause-finally. Although relatively uncommon, VOS is well documented cross-linguistically.

The following examples illustrate the basic, unmarked, constituent order in Ver.

Б̱ифитъосъ б̱оњаўп датъ каґыдъ датъ.

[ɓifitˤosˤ ɓoɲaup datˤ kaɡɯdˤ datˤ]

ɓif
kill -i
PAST -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP ɓoɲaup
hunter da
the -tˤ
cl.5 kaɡɯdˤ
jaguar da
the -tˤ
cl.5

“The jaguar killed the hunter.”

 (15)
Паўґитъосъ б̱оњаўп датъ съитъ датъ ӈӹ шит датъ ӈӹ дъасањ датъ.

[pauɡitˤosˤ ɓoɲaup datˤ sˤitˤ datˤ ŋɤ ʃit datˤ ŋɤ dˤasaɲ datˤ]

pauɡ
eat -i
PAST -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP ɓoɲaup
hunter da
the -tˤ
cl.5 sˤitˤ
daughter da
the -tˤ
cl.5 ŋɤ
3.cl.5.POSS ʃit
dog da
the -tˤ
cl.5 ŋɤ
3.cl.5.POSS dˤasaɲ
lion da
the -tˤ
cl.5

“The lion ate the hunter’s daughter’s dog.”

 (16)

The language has a fixed constituent order, and major phrases normally appear in a predictable position in the clause. Movement for discourse reasons is highly restricted: topics and foci are expressed not by rearranging elements, but through dedicated constructions such as clefts, focus clauses or topic–comment frames. Constituents remain continuous, and both the relative order of phrases and the internal structure of each phrase are stable. As a result, significant deviations from the basic word order are ungrammatical, and discourse structure is managed through these specialised constructions rather than through word-order variation.

Noun Phrases

Structure and Order

The internal structure of noun phrases in Ver reveals typologically significant preferences in the ordering of nominal constituents. This includes the position of adjectives, numerals, and possessors relative to the noun, each of which can offer clues to the overall headedness of the language.

Possessive constructions are head-final: the possessor precedes the possessed noun. For example, Ver expresses “the child’s toy” with the equivalent of “child toy”. This ordering is found in many SOV and postpositional languages and aligns with a broader tendency towards modifier-first structures.

б̱ек датъ ӈад раб̱ датъ ӈӹ бер данъ ӈӹ

[ɓek datˤ ŋad ɾaɓ datˤ ŋɤ beɾ danˤ ŋɤ]

ɓek
son da
the -tˤ
cl.5 ŋad
2.POSS ɾaɓ
friend da
the -tˤ
cl.5 ŋɤ
3.cl.5.POSS beɾ
book da
the -nˤ
cl.7 ŋɤ
3.cl.5.POSS

“your son’s friend’s book”

 (17)

Case Marking

Ver does not use case marking to distinguish the core participants of the clause. There is therefore no regular nominative, accusative, ergative, active or stative marking on subjects and objects. Instead, the roles of the participants are identified by other means, cf. the examples below.

Тыкетъосъ тъедъ датъ.

[tɯketˤosˤ tˤedˤ datˤ]

tɯk
sleep -e
PRES -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP tˤedˤ
cat da
the -tˤ
cl.5

“The cat is sleeping.”

 (18)
Дъаўметъосъ тъедъ датъ.

[dˤaumetˤosˤ tˤedˤ datˤ]

dˤaum
run -e
PRES -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP tˤedˤ
cat da
the -tˤ
cl.5

“The cat is running.”

 (19)
Съујуметъосъ диб̱уґ датъ тъедъ датъ.

[sˤujumetˤosˤ diɓuɡ datˤ tˤedˤ datˤ]

sˤujum
chase -e
PRES -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP diɓuɡ
mouse da
the -tˤ
cl.5 tˤedˤ
cat da
the -tˤ
cl.5

“The cat is chasing the mouse.”

 (20)
Ґаситъосъ диб̱уґ датъ тъедъ датъ.

[ɡasitˤosˤ diɓuɡ datˤ tˤedˤ datˤ]

ɡas
catch -i
PAST -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP diɓuɡ
mouse da
the -tˤ
cl.5 tˤedˤ
cat da
the -tˤ
cl.5

“The cat caught the mouse.”

 (21)

Conjunctions

Here is an example of a conjunction.

Б̱ифитъосъ каґыдъ датъ паўт чӹтыв датъ паўт дъасањ датъ б̱оњаўп датъ.

[ɓifitˤosˤ kaɡɯdˤ datˤ paut t͡ʃɤtɯʋ datˤ paut dˤasaɲ datˤ ɓoɲaup datˤ]

ɓif
kill -i
PAST -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP kaɡɯdˤ
jaguar da
the -tˤ
cl.5 paut
and t͡ʃɤtɯʋ
tiger da
the -tˤ
cl.5 paut
and dˤasaɲ
lion da
the -tˤ
cl.5 ɓoɲaup
hunter da
the -tˤ
cl.5

“The hunter killed the jaguars, the tigers and the lions.”

 (22)

Modifiers and Determiners

The ordering of demonstratives, articles (if present), and other modifiers in Ver provides further insight into the structure of the noun phrase. These elements frequently exhibit fixed positions and may reveal whether the language favours head-initial or head-final patterns.

Complex Sentences

Relative Clauses

Ver forms relative clauses by using a head-internal strategy. The head noun appears inside the clause itself, occupying its regular syntactic position. The entire clause functions as a modifier, and its external syntactic behaviour is identical to that of a noun-modifying phrase.

To illustrate how relative clauses work, let us begin with a simple sentence:

Варучитъосъ тъедъ датъ.

[ʋaɾut͡ʃitˤosˤ tˤedˤ datˤ]

ʋaɾut͡ʃ
pat -i
PAST -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP tˤedˤ
cat da
the -tˤ
cl.5

“I patted the cat.”

 (23)

We can now add a relative clause modifying the noun:

Варучитъосъ ґаситъуф диб̱уґ датъ тъедъ датъ.

[ʋaɾut͡ʃitˤosˤ ɡasitˤuf diɓuɡ datˤ tˤedˤ datˤ]

ʋaɾut͡ʃ
pat -i
PAST -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP ɡas
catch -i
PAST -tˤ
active -uf
COMP diɓuɡ
mouse da
the -tˤ
cl.5 tˤedˤ
cat da
the -tˤ
cl.5

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse.”

 (24)

Relative clauses may themselves contain other relative clauses:

Варучитъосъ ґаситъуф паўґитъуф дъанъодъ дас диб̱уґ датъ тъедъ датъ.

[ʋaɾut͡ʃitˤosˤ ɡasitˤuf pauɡitˤuf dˤanˤodˤ das diɓuɡ datˤ tˤedˤ datˤ]

ʋaɾut͡ʃ
pat -i
PAST -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP ɡas
catch -i
PAST -tˤ
active -uf
COMP pauɡ
eat -i
PAST -tˤ
active -uf
COMP dˤanˤodˤ
cheese da
the -s
cl.4 diɓuɡ
mouse da
the -tˤ
cl.5 tˤedˤ
cat da
the -tˤ
cl.5

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese.”

 (25)

Finally, here is an example containing several layers of embedding:

Варучитъосъ ґаситъуф паўґитъуф б̱ишитъуф дъанъодъ дас ґунъ диб̱уґ датъ тъедъ датъ.

[ʋaɾut͡ʃitˤosˤ ɡasitˤuf pauɡitˤuf ɓiʃitˤuf dˤanˤodˤ das ɡunˤ diɓuɡ datˤ tˤedˤ datˤ]

ʋaɾut͡ʃ
pat -i
PAST -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP ɡas
catch -i
PAST -tˤ
active -uf
COMP pauɡ
eat -i
PAST -tˤ
active -uf
COMP ɓiʃ
buy -i
PAST -tˤ
active -uf
COMP dˤanˤodˤ
cheese da
the -s
cl.4 ɡunˤ
1excl diɓuɡ
mouse da
the -tˤ
cl.5 tˤedˤ
cat da
the -tˤ
cl.5

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese that I bought.”

 (26)

Complementation Strategies

Ver marks complement clauses with subordinating verbal morphology. The embedded verb is fully finite and carries a subordinating suffix that identifies the clause as a complement. No structural changes occur within the clause apart from this verbal marking.

The following example illustrate how complement clauses function:

Дибибитъосъ ґитер датъ чањитъуф новӹ съас пуп датъ путъ датъ.

[dibibitˤosˤ ɡiteɾ datˤ t͡ʃaɲitˤuf noʋɤ sˤas pup datˤ putˤ datˤ]

dibib
surprise -i
PAST -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP ɡiteɾ
teacher da
the -tˤ
cl.5 t͡ʃaɲ
give -i
PAST -tˤ
active -uf
COMP noʋɤ
apple sˤa
a -s
cl.4 pup
girl da
the -tˤ
cl.5 putˤ
boy da
the -tˤ
cl.5

“It surprised the teacher that the boy had given the girl an apple.”

 (27)

Quotes

Ver employs a quotative particle to mark direct and indirect speech. The quotative follows the reported phrase and identifies the preceding expression as quoted or reported. The same construction is also used to express reported thoughts.

Here is an example of how quotations are expressed:

Чӹбитъосъ канетъуф съуб ґунъ пуп датъ путъ датъ.

[t͡ʃɤbitˤosˤ kanetˤuf sˤub ɡunˤ pup datˤ putˤ datˤ]

t͡ʃɤb
tell -i
PAST -tˤ
active -osˤ
not.COMP kan
love -e
PRES -tˤ
active -uf
COMP sˤub
2 ɡunˤ
1excl pup
girl da
the -tˤ
cl.5 putˤ
boy da
the -tˤ
cl.5

“The boy told the girl that he loved her.”

 (28)

How to cite this grammar

Language Creator. 2026. A Grammar of Ver. Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 5 September 2026. https://languagecreator.org/grammar/3T7VB

In BibTeX format:

@misc{LC-3T7VB,
  year         = 2026,
  author       = {{Language Creator}},
  title        = {A Grammar of {Ver}},
  howpublished = {\url{https://languagecreator.org/grammar/3T7VB}},
  note         = {Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 5 September 2026}
}

Supplementary Materials

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