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A Grammar of Gir

Introduction

Scope and Purpose

This grammar provides a systematic description of the Gir language (the 1912th one produced by the Language Creator), outlining its sound system, word formation and syntactic structure, with the aim of presenting a coherent account of the language as an integrated whole. Attention has been paid to both regular patterns and minor irregularities, as these together define the internal balance of the language.

The grammar is accompanied by a bilingual dictionary and a collection of illustrative texts, offering material for further study and comparison. The examples have been selected to demonstrate typical constructions and to give a sense of the language in extended use. The description is intended as a reference work for linguists and language enthusiasts alike, and as a foundation for any future research, teaching or creative adaptation of Gir.

Typological Profile

It has a rich system of noun classes, a disproportionately large set of glottal and uvular consonants and a small but genuine set of click consonants.

Phonology

Phoneme Inventory

Consonants

Gir has an extremely large consonant inventory, totalling 61 phonemes. Such a system is exceptional in scale.

It has an extensive and fully contrastive palatal series, an exceptionally large and contrastive set of fricatives, an extensive set of dental articulations, a disproportionately large set of glottal and uvular consonants and a strongly reduced sibilant system.

The table below presents the full inventory of consonant phonemes in Gir. The chart lists all places and manners of articulation attested in the language.

vel. labialpal. labialvel. dentalpal. dentalvel. alveolarpal. alveolarpostalveolarvel. lateralpal. lateralpalatalvel. velarpal. velarvel. uvularpal. uvularglottal
stoppˠ bˠ pʲ bʲ dˠ tˠ dʲ tʲ kˠ ɡˠ kʲ ɡʲ qˠ ɢˠ qʲ ɢʲ ʔ
nasalmˠ mʲ nˠ nʲ ŋˠ ŋʲ
fricativefˠ vˠ fʲ vʲ ðˠ θˠ ðʲ θʲ sˠ zˠ sʲ zʲ xˠ ɣˠ xʲ ɣʲ ʁˠ ʁʲ h ɦ
approximantʋˠ ʋʲ ɾˠ ɾʲ j
affricatet͡sˠ t͡sʲ d͡ʒ t͡ʃ
implosiveɓˠ ɓʲ ɗˠ ɗʲ
clickᵏǀˠ ᵏǀʲ
click, nasalᵑǀˠ ᵑǀʲ

Vowels

Gir has 8 vowel qualities, forming a relatively large inventory. The system distinguishes several vowel categories, as indicated in the chart, offering a wide range of vocalic contrasts.

It has a modest but genuine inventory of nasal vowels.

The table below presents the full inventory of vowel phonemes in Gir. The system comprises the distinct vowel qualities listed in the chart.

frontcentralback
closei u
mide ə̃ o
opena

Stress and Tones

Gir has phonemic stress but no lexical tone. Stress consistently falls on the first vowel of the root, and no contrastive tonal distinctions are made.

Phonological Processes

Vowel Harmony

The language employs vowel harmony. To be specific, the following vowels change to match the first vowel of the root: /i/ becomes /u/, /e/ becomes /o/.

Writing System

Introduction

Gir is normally written using the Latin alphabet, whose familiarity makes it straightforward for most readers. For clarity and precision, phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are also provided throughout this grammar.

Orthography

Here are the various components of the orthography:

Simple letters

a /a/e /e/h /h/i /i/
j /d͡ʒ/o /o/q /ʔ/u /u/
y /j/ɦ /ɦ/ẽ /ə̃/

Multi-letter combinations such as digraphs

ai /ai/au /au/bbi /ɓʲ/
bbo /ɓˠ/bi /bʲ/bo /bˠ/
ci /ᵏǀʲ/co /ᵏǀˠ/ddi /ɗʲ/
ddo /ɗˠ/di /dʲ/dj /t͡ʃ/
do /dˠ/fi /fʲ/fo /fˠ/
gi /ɡʲ/go /ɡˠ/ki /kʲ/
ko /kˠ/mi /mʲ/mo /mˠ/
nci /ᵑǀʲ/nco /ᵑǀˠ/ngi /ŋʲ/
ngo /ŋˠ/ni /nʲ/no /nˠ/
pi /pʲ/po /pˠ/qi /qʲ/
qo /qˠ/ri /ɾʲ/ro /ɾˠ/
si /sʲ/so /sˠ/ti /tʲ/
to /tˠ/tzi /t͡sʲ/tzo /t͡sˠ/
vi /vʲ/vo /vˠ/wi /ʋʲ/
wo /ʋˠ/xxi /xʲ/xxo /xˠ/
zi /zʲ/zo /zˠ/ði /ðʲ/
ðo /ðˠ/þi /θʲ/þo /θˠ/
ği /ɣʲ/ğo /ɣˠ/ħgi /ɢʲ/
ħgo /ɢˠ/ʁi /ʁʲ/ʁo /ʁˠ/

Word Classes and Morphology

Number and Gender

Number

Gir does not have grammatical number.

Gender

Gir has the following noun classes:

Class cl.1 – for instance: bbiitzoozi ‘knee’, biij ‘language’, bouko ‘book’, dooj ‘foot’, giimo ‘face’, hingo ‘daughter’, koigoetzi ‘restaurant’, miaþoeno ‘medicine’, moakoito ‘market’, moaħgiiri ‘student’, ngiiziibi ‘library’, soekoudo ‘school’, tzoaubbi ‘sky’, wieqiauqo ‘hunter’, woagiauqo ‘court’, xxiẽsi ‘back’, yariiwo ‘dialect’, zoiqiari ‘bank’, ɦengiiɦ ‘religion’.

Class cl.2 – for instance: ddoidi ‘cat’, doaqẽbo ‘wild boar’, foeviawi ‘snake’, jiy ‘egg’, jẽħgi ‘animal’, koego ‘fish’, nciauxxi ‘bird’, ncietziipi ‘mammal’, noaþiiðo ‘worm’, riamoidi ‘wing’, roixxiiɦ ‘jaguar’, tzoetoivi ‘louse’, xxoiqiẽj ‘cheese’, xxoitziaiti ‘feather’, zoesiauj ‘vagina’, ðoikoiy ‘lamb’, þoatzo ‘meat’, ğoauħgi ‘man’, ħgoeðiingo ‘tiger’, ʁoiʁo ‘boy’.

Class cl.3 – for instance: bbiaubi ‘rain’, bboiħgoẽbi ‘fat’, biafoaugi ‘urine’, biepo ‘water’, ddiipoafi ‘sand’, djiʁo ‘sun’, doidjə̃y ‘teacher’, kioħgi ‘fire’, moenoiq ‘money’, noikoeðo ‘bosom’, piinoij ‘snow’, qoaħgoẽni ‘faeces’, qoizioso ‘ash’, sieqazi ‘slime’, tzieqiaþi ‘salt’, ðiaziẽbbo ‘fog’, ðoati ‘hair’, þiemoiɦ ‘smoke’, ʁoaɦauxxo ‘dust’.

Class cl.4 – for instance: coekiazo ‘tower’, doavo ‘eye’, giuþi ‘ear’, jaubo ‘house’, niimo ‘sea’, nioħgo ‘son’, piugi ‘road’, tiiwi ‘people’, toakiaɦ ‘lake’, toani ‘east’, toiy ‘surface’, viifoovo ‘river’, woiʁi ‘west’, yaizo ‘top’, ziaungi ‘tongue’, ğoopi ‘inside’, ʁoaxxiini ‘stick’, ʁooj ‘nose’.

Class cl.5 – for instance: coiğiauro ‘tail’, giedi ‘stone’, giogo ‘tooth’, goiʁo ‘Gir’, piabo ‘woman’, voiðiesi ‘brick’, woadiaiħgo ‘box’, xxiavo ‘bone’, þiauri ‘head’, ħgieni ‘wind’, ʁiaqoovo ‘horn’, ʁoingooqi ‘fingernail’, ʁoisoofo ‘bottle’.

Class cl.6 – for instance: biumi ‘moon’, biẽki ‘hand’, boiþoaħgo ‘neighbour’, boori ‘fruit’, ddoaðo ‘friend’, diaddo ‘star’, giauþi ‘leaf’, goango ‘name’, goibiaiʁo ‘seed’, hiddietzo ‘anus’, himiito ‘flower’, koaðiupi ‘grass’, ncieħgiovo ‘forest’, qiiþiodi ‘neck’, siaviaqi ‘breast’, soaddiingo ‘farmer’, yaɦ ‘tree’, þiajauro ‘wheat’, þoaxxoẽqi ‘apple’, ʁiaþiauto ‘ice’.

Class cl.7 – for instance: bboamoeqo ‘penis’, bieʁo ‘bed’, biofo ‘earth’, ciomo ‘land’, ddieʁi ‘heart’, hesiaiħgi ‘belly’, miiki ‘table’, ngiiddoiko ‘root’, niauti ‘blood’, viuj ‘chair’, voaij ‘leg’, wiekiifi ‘plain’, xxiixxiibbi ‘mountain’, ğiikoiddi ‘liver’, ɦepoaki ‘guts’.

Class cl.8 – for instance: bboaiddo ‘south’, boepiağo ‘net’, ciaxxiaħgi ‘binoculars’, djenoaqi ‘machine’, foabiẽri ‘umbrella’, foegi ‘child’, moidiẽxxi ‘mortar’, noaugo ‘knife’, soautzo ‘mother’, ğiaroebbi ‘God’, ğoamiipo ‘rope’.

Class cl.9 – for instance: bianoauʁi ‘embrace’, ddougo ‘day’, giami ‘girl’, heso ‘skin’, jedj ‘wife’, kieziido ‘breath’, noaþi ‘north’, riaro ‘mouth’, riuvo ‘year’, roebiabo ‘cloud’, tiibi ‘human being’, touti ‘husband’, tzoato ‘time’, voaiħgo ‘speech’, vouþi ‘fight’, wiauno ‘father’, woino ‘manner’, xxiaingi ‘colour’, ðoaudi ‘idea’, ħgoezi ‘night’.

The Nominal Phrase

Nominal phrases in Gir can be exemplified by the following example:

Heno piaboino tiuddiuno hengi noaugouno ʁoini ciifo ðoẽmo ðoau xxoeğiaþoino, ħgoasi diaingo.

[ˈhenˠ ˈpʲabˠinˠ tʲuˈɗʲunˠ ˈheŋʲ ˈnˠauɡˠunˠ ʁˠinʲ ˈᵏǀʲifˠ ˈðˠə̃mˠ ˈðˠau xˠeˈɣʲaθˠinˠ, ˈɢˠasʲ ˈdʲaiŋˠ]

ˈhe
the -nˠ
cl.5 ˈpʲabˠ
woman -inˠ
NOM tʲiˈɗʲunˠ
COMIT ˈhe
the -ŋʲ
cl.8 ˈnˠauɡˠ
knife -inˠ
NOM ʁˠinʲ
PAST ˈᵏǀʲifˠ
catch ˈðˠə̃
yon -mˠ
cl.2 ˈðˠau
three xˠeˈɣʲaθˠ
mouse -inˠ
NOM ˈɢˠasʲ
RELPRON ˈdʲaiŋˠ
blind

“The woman with the knife caught those three blind mice.”

 (1)

In the following, we shall look at the various components in more details.

There is one type of clitic in the nominal phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing possessor. a clitic expressing possessor, comprising goemo /ɡˠemˠ/ ‘1incl’, xxoa /xˠa/ ‘1excl’, ħgiino /ɢʲinˠ/ ‘2’, bbiesi /ɓʲesʲ/ ‘3.cl.1’, zoefi /zˠefʲ/ ‘3.cl.2’, ħgiiro /ɢʲiɾˠ/ ‘3.cl.3’, þiingo /θʲiŋˠ/ ‘3.cl.4’, bboafi /ɓˠafʲ/ ‘3.cl.5’, bboe /ɓˠe/ ‘3.cl.6’, himo /himˠ/ ‘3.cl.7’, noano /nˠanˠ/ ‘3.cl.8’ and nciafo /ᵑǀʲafˠ/ ‘3.cl.9’.

The morphology of the elements of the nominal phrase, i.e., nouns, numerals and pronouns, is described below, as is the way that possession is expressed in Gir.

The Noun

The noun in Gir consists of the root followed by an obligatory suffix expressing case, comprising -ino /-inˠ/ ‘NOM’, -ifi /-ifʲ/ ‘DAT’, -imo /-imˠ/ ‘INS’, -ami /-amʲ/ ‘VOC’, -ani /-anʲ/ ‘ALL’, -emo /-emˠ/ ‘LOC’, -efi /-efʲ/ ‘ABL’ and -ifo /-ifˠ/ ‘PART’.

The noun displays the following derivational morphology: two suffixes, namely -ani /-anʲ/ ‘little’ and -idj /-it͡ʃ/ ‘big’

The Adjective

The adjective in Gir stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Numerals

The numeral in Gir stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Determiners

In Gir, the determiner has the following structure: the root followed by an obligatory suffix expressing gender, comprising -ri /-ɾʲ/ ‘cl.1’, -mo /-mˠ/ ‘cl.2’, -fi /-fʲ/ ‘cl.3’, -fo /-fˠ/ ‘cl.4’, -no /-nˠ/ ‘cl.5’, -ro /-ɾˠ/ ‘cl.6’, -mi /-mʲ/ ‘cl.7’, -ngi /-ŋʲ/ ‘cl.8’ and -ni /-nʲ/ ‘cl.9’.

Pronouns

The pronoun in Gir stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

In Gir, subject pronouns (but not object pronouns ones) are dropped unless they are stressed. Here is an example where neither of the pronouns are stressed:

Viufi xxoifi.

[ˈvʲufʲ ˈxˠifʲ]

ˈvʲufʲ
love ˈxˠifʲ
3.cl.9

“He (the boy) loves her (the girl).”

 (2)

But here, the word corresponding to he (i.e., the subject) is stressed:

Riaifi viufi xxoifi.

[ˈɾʲaifʲ ˈvʲufʲ ˈxˠifʲ]

ˈɾʲaifʲ
3.cl.2 ˈvʲufʲ
love ˈxˠifʲ
3.cl.9

“He loves her.”

 (3)

Proper Nouns

Hengi Koitziaʁoino woeðiafi hengi Xxiaðoaqiino.

[ˈheŋʲ kˠiˈt͡sʲaʁˠinˠ ʋˠeˈðʲafʲ ˈheŋʲ xʲaˈðˠaqʲinˠ]

ˈhe
the -ŋʲ
cl.8 kˠiˈt͡sʲaʁˠ
Kitsar -inˠ
NOM ʋˠeˈðʲafʲ
hate ˈhe
the -ŋʲ
cl.8 xʲaˈðˠaqʲ
Khathaq -inˠ
NOM

“Kitsar hates Khathaq.”

 (4)

Possession

hemo ʁoiʁoino hero þoaxxoẽqiino zoefi

[ˈhemˠ ˈʁˠiʁˠinˠ ˈheɾˠ θˠaˈxˠə̃qʲinˠ zˠefʲ]

ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 ˈʁˠiʁˠ
boy -inˠ
NOM ˈhe
the -ɾˠ
cl.6 θˠaˈxˠə̃qʲ
apple -inˠ
NOM zˠefʲ
3.cl.2.POSS

“the boy’s apple”

 (5)
riaifi hero þoaxxoẽqiino zoefi

[ˈɾʲaifʲ ˈheɾˠ θˠaˈxˠə̃qʲinˠ zˠefʲ]

ˈɾʲaifʲ
3.cl.2 ˈhe
the -ɾˠ
cl.6 θˠaˈxˠə̃qʲ
apple -inˠ
NOM zˠefʲ
3.cl.2.POSS

“his (the boy’s) apple”

 (6)
hero þoaxxoẽqiino xxoa

[ˈheɾˠ θˠaˈxˠə̃qʲinˠ xˠa]

ˈhe
the -ɾˠ
cl.6 θˠaˈxˠə̃qʲ
apple -inˠ
NOM xˠa
1excl.POSS

“my apple”

 (7)
Heri wioqiauqouno heri hingoino bbiesi ʁoini ddoebboafi hero boiþoaħgoino ħgiino hefo nioħgouno bboe.

[ˈheɾʲ ʋʲoˈqʲauqˠunˠ ˈheɾʲ ˈhiŋˠinˠ ɓʲesʲ ʁˠinʲ ɗˠeˈɓˠafʲ ˈheɾˠ bˠiˈθˠaɢˠinˠ ɢʲinˠ ˈhefˠ ˈnʲoɢˠunˠ ɓˠe]

ˈhe
the -ɾʲ
cl.1 ʋʲeˈqʲauqˠ
hunter -inˠ
NOM ˈhe
the -ɾʲ
cl.1 ˈhiŋˠ
daughter -inˠ
NOM ɓʲesʲ
3.cl.1.POSS ʁˠinʲ
PAST ɗˠeˈɓˠafʲ
kiss ˈhe
the -ɾˠ
cl.6 bˠiˈθˠaɢˠ
neighbour -inˠ
NOM ɢʲinˠ
2.POSS ˈhe
the -fˠ
cl.4 ˈnʲoɢˠ
son -inˠ
NOM ɓˠe
3.cl.6.POSS

“The hunter’s daughter kissed your neighbour’s son.”

 (8)

Derivation

Gir has a few derivational processes. To illustrate this, let us start with a simple noun phrase:

zoumo ðoikoiyino

[ˈzˠumˠ ðˠiˈkˠijinˠ]

ˈzˠu
a -mˠ
cl.2 ðˠiˈkˠij
lamb -inˠ
NOM

“a lamb”

 (9)

In the following, the word for little becomes an affix attached to lamb:

zoumo ðoikoiyaniino

[ˈzˠumˠ ðˠiˈkˠijanʲinˠ]

ˈzˠu
a -mˠ
cl.2 ðˠiˈkˠij
lamb -anʲ
little -inˠ
NOM

“a little lamb”

 (10)

Compounding

Verbs

Inflectional Categories

The verbal phrase clitics in Gir fall into two categories, proclitics and enclitics: first, a clitic expressing negation, comprising foeno /fˠenˠ/ ‘NEG’; second, a clitic expressing ta, comprising ʁoini /ʁˠinʲ/ ‘PAST’; third, a clitic expressing mode, comprising vieni /vʲenʲ/ ‘imperative’, bboano /ɓˠanˠ/ ‘conditional’ and ddiiso /ɗʲisˠ/ ‘optative’; fourth, a clitic expressing voice, comprising ddoiri /ɗˠiɾʲ/ ‘passive’; and finally, fifth, a clitic expressing question, comprising riiro /ɾʲiɾˠ/ ‘Q’.

The verb itself does not have any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

The verb displays the following derivational morphology: two suffixes, namely -voi /-vˠi/ ‘begin’ and -ğoi /-ɣˠi/ ‘stop’

Viufi ngoauso.

[ˈvʲufʲ ˈŋˠausˠ]

ˈvʲufʲ
love ˈŋˠausˠ
2

“I love you.”

 (11)

Adverbs Minor Classes

Adpositions

There is one type of clitic in the adpositional phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing root.

diini hemi miikiino

[ˈdʲinʲ ˈhemʲ ˈmʲikʲinˠ]

ˈdʲinʲ
in_surface ˈhe
the -mʲ
cl.7 ˈmʲikʲ
table -inˠ
NOM

“on the table”

 (12)
tiimo heno woadiaiħgoino

[ˈtʲimˠ ˈhenˠ ʋˠaˈdʲaiɢˠinˠ]

ˈtʲimˠ
to_inside ˈhe
the -nˠ
cl.5 ʋˠaˈdʲaiɢˠ
box -inˠ
NOM

“into the box”

 (13)
tiuddiuno bboaiso

[tʲuˈɗʲunˠ ˈɓˠaisˠ]

tʲiˈɗʲunˠ
COMIT ˈɓˠaisˠ
1excl

“with me”

 (14)

Syntax

Basic Clause Structure

Constituent Order

Constituent order describes the typical arrangement of the subject (S), verb (V) and object (O) in simple declarative clauses. It is a fundamental parameter in grammatical description and forms one of the clearest ways of characterising the overall structure of a language’s clause system.

Gir employs Subject–Verb–Object (SVO) as its basic word order. The subject is followed by the verb, with the object occurring in post-verbal position. This ordering is widely attested across the world’s languages.

The following examples illustrate the basic, unmarked, constituent order in Gir.

Hemo roixxiiɦino ʁoini siangi heri wioqiauqouno.

[ˈhemˠ ɾˠiˈxʲiɦinˠ ʁˠinʲ ˈsʲaŋʲ ˈheɾʲ ʋʲoˈqʲauqˠunˠ]

ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 ɾˠiˈxʲiɦ
jaguar -inˠ
NOM ʁˠinʲ
PAST ˈsʲaŋʲ
kill ˈhe
the -ɾʲ
cl.1 ʋʲeˈqʲauqˠ
hunter -inˠ
NOM

“The jaguar killed the hunter.”

 (15)
Hemo ğoaddoudouno ʁoini ðoimo heri wioqiauqouno heri hingoino bbiesi hemo xxoaqoino bbiesi.

[ˈhemˠ ɣˠaˈɗˠudˠunˠ ʁˠinʲ ˈðˠimˠ ˈheɾʲ ʋʲoˈqʲauqˠunˠ ˈheɾʲ ˈhiŋˠinˠ ɓʲesʲ ˈhemˠ ˈxˠaqˠinˠ ɓʲesʲ]

ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 ɣˠaˈɗˠudˠ
lion -inˠ
NOM ʁˠinʲ
PAST ˈðˠimˠ
eat ˈhe
the -ɾʲ
cl.1 ʋʲeˈqʲauqˠ
hunter -inˠ
NOM ˈhe
the -ɾʲ
cl.1 ˈhiŋˠ
daughter -inˠ
NOM ɓʲesʲ
3.cl.1.POSS ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 ˈxˠaqˠ
dog -inˠ
NOM ɓʲesʲ
3.cl.1.POSS

“The lion ate the hunter’s daughter’s dog.”

 (16)

The language has a fixed constituent order, and major phrases normally appear in a predictable position in the clause. Movement for discourse reasons is highly restricted: topics and foci are expressed not by rearranging elements, but through dedicated constructions such as clefts, focus clauses or topic–comment frames. Constituents remain continuous, and both the relative order of phrases and the internal structure of each phrase are stable. As a result, significant deviations from the basic word order are ungrammatical, and discourse structure is managed through these specialised constructions rather than through word-order variation.

Noun Phrases

Structure and Order

The internal structure of noun phrases in Gir reveals typologically significant preferences in the ordering of nominal constituents. This includes the position of adjectives, numerals, and possessors relative to the noun, each of which can offer clues to the overall headedness of the language.

Possessive constructions are head-final: the possessor precedes the possessed noun. For example, Gir expresses “the child’s toy” with the equivalent of “child toy”. This ordering is found in many SOV and postpositional languages and aligns with a broader tendency towards modifier-first structures.

hefo nioħgouno ħgiino hero ddoaðoino þiingo heri boukouno bboe

[ˈhefˠ ˈnʲoɢˠunˠ ɢʲinˠ ˈheɾˠ ˈɗˠaðˠinˠ θʲiŋˠ ˈheɾʲ bˠukˠunˠ ɓˠe]

ˈhe
the -fˠ
cl.4 ˈnʲoɢˠ
son -inˠ
NOM ɢʲinˠ
2.POSS ˈhe
the -ɾˠ
cl.6 ˈɗˠaðˠ
friend -inˠ
NOM θʲiŋˠ
3.cl.4.POSS ˈhe
the -ɾʲ
cl.1 bˠukˠ
book -inˠ
NOM ɓˠe
3.cl.6.POSS

“your son’s friend’s book”

 (17)

Case Marking

Gir does not use case marking to distinguish the core participants of the clause. There is therefore no regular nominative, accusative, ergative, active or stative marking on subjects and objects. Instead, the roles of the participants are identified by other means, cf. the examples below.

Hemo ddoidiino ngousi.

[ˈhemˠ ˈɗˠidʲinˠ ˈŋˠusʲ]

ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 ˈɗˠidʲ
cat -inˠ
NOM ˈŋˠusʲ
sleep

“The cat is sleeping.”

 (18)
Hemo ddoidiino koifo.

[ˈhemˠ ˈɗˠidʲinˠ ˈkˠifˠ]

ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 ˈɗˠidʲ
cat -inˠ
NOM ˈkˠifˠ
run

“The cat is running.”

 (19)
Hemo ddoidiino nciupiuni hemo xxoeğiaþoino.

[ˈhemˠ ˈɗˠidʲinˠ ᵑǀʲuˈpʲunʲ ˈhemˠ xˠeˈɣʲaθˠinˠ]

ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 ˈɗˠidʲ
cat -inˠ
NOM ᵑǀʲiˈpʲunʲ
chase ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 xˠeˈɣʲaθˠ
mouse -inˠ
NOM

“The cat is chasing the mouse.”

 (20)
Hemo ddoidiino ʁoini ciifo hemo xxoeğiaþoino.

[ˈhemˠ ˈɗˠidʲinˠ ʁˠinʲ ˈᵏǀʲifˠ ˈhemˠ xˠeˈɣʲaθˠinˠ]

ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 ˈɗˠidʲ
cat -inˠ
NOM ʁˠinʲ
PAST ˈᵏǀʲifˠ
catch ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 xˠeˈɣʲaθˠ
mouse -inˠ
NOM

“The cat caught the mouse.”

 (21)

Conjunctions

Here is an example of a conjunction.

Heri wioqiauqouno ʁoini siangi hemo roixxiiɦino nciango hemo ħgoeðiingoino nciango hemo ğoaddoudouno.

[ˈheɾʲ ʋʲoˈqʲauqˠunˠ ʁˠinʲ ˈsʲaŋʲ ˈhemˠ ɾˠiˈxʲiɦinˠ ˈᵑǀʲaŋˠ ˈhemˠ ɢˠeˈðʲiŋˠinˠ ˈᵑǀʲaŋˠ ˈhemˠ ɣˠaˈɗˠudˠunˠ]

ˈhe
the -ɾʲ
cl.1 ʋʲeˈqʲauqˠ
hunter -inˠ
NOM ʁˠinʲ
PAST ˈsʲaŋʲ
kill ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 ɾˠiˈxʲiɦ
jaguar -inˠ
NOM ˈᵑǀʲaŋˠ
and ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 ɢˠeˈðʲiŋˠ
tiger -inˠ
NOM ˈᵑǀʲaŋˠ
and ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 ɣˠaˈɗˠudˠ
lion -inˠ
NOM

“The hunter killed the jaguars, the tigers and the lions.”

 (22)

Modifiers and Determiners

The ordering of demonstratives, articles (if present), and other modifiers in Gir provides further insight into the structure of the noun phrase. These elements frequently exhibit fixed positions and may reveal whether the language favours head-initial or head-final patterns.

Complex Sentences

Relative Clauses

Gir forms relative clauses by placing the relative clause after the noun it modifies. The clause follows the internal word order of ordinary finite clauses. A dedicated relativising marker introduces the clause and identifies the relationship between the head noun and its role inside the relative clause.

To illustrate how relative clauses work, let us begin with a simple sentence:

ʁoini horoufo hemo ddoidiino.

[ʁˠinʲ hoˈɾˠufˠ ˈhemˠ ˈɗˠidʲinˠ]

ʁˠinʲ
PAST heˈɾˠufˠ
pat ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 ˈɗˠidʲ
cat -inˠ
NOM

“I patted the cat.”

 (23)

We can now add a relative clause modifying the noun:

ʁoini horoufo hemo ddoidiino, ħgoasi ʁoini ciifo hemo xxoeğiaþoino.

[ʁˠinʲ hoˈɾˠufˠ ˈhemˠ ˈɗˠidʲinˠ, ˈɢˠasʲ ʁˠinʲ ˈᵏǀʲifˠ ˈhemˠ xˠeˈɣʲaθˠinˠ]

ʁˠinʲ
PAST heˈɾˠufˠ
pat ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 ˈɗˠidʲ
cat -inˠ
NOM ˈɢˠasʲ
RELPRON ʁˠinʲ
PAST ˈᵏǀʲifˠ
catch ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 xˠeˈɣʲaθˠ
mouse -inˠ
NOM

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse.”

 (24)

Relative clauses may themselves contain other relative clauses:

ʁoini horoufo hemo ddoidiino, ħgoasi ʁoini ciifo hemo xxoeğiaþoino, ħgoasi ʁoini ðoimo hemo xxoiqiẽjino.

[ʁˠinʲ hoˈɾˠufˠ ˈhemˠ ˈɗˠidʲinˠ, ˈɢˠasʲ ʁˠinʲ ˈᵏǀʲifˠ ˈhemˠ xˠeˈɣʲaθˠinˠ, ˈɢˠasʲ ʁˠinʲ ˈðˠimˠ ˈhemˠ xˠiˈqʲə̃d͡ʒinˠ]

ʁˠinʲ
PAST heˈɾˠufˠ
pat ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 ˈɗˠidʲ
cat -inˠ
NOM ˈɢˠasʲ
RELPRON ʁˠinʲ
PAST ˈᵏǀʲifˠ
catch ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 xˠeˈɣʲaθˠ
mouse -inˠ
NOM ˈɢˠasʲ
RELPRON ʁˠinʲ
PAST ˈðˠimˠ
eat ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 xˠiˈqʲə̃d͡ʒ
cheese -inˠ
NOM

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese.”

 (25)

Finally, here is an example containing several layers of embedding:

ʁoini horoufo hemo ddoidiino, ħgoasi ʁoini ciifo hemo xxoeğiaþoino, ħgoasi ʁoini ðoimo hemo xxoiqiẽjino, ħgoasi ʁoini doifo bboaiso.

[ʁˠinʲ hoˈɾˠufˠ ˈhemˠ ˈɗˠidʲinˠ, ˈɢˠasʲ ʁˠinʲ ˈᵏǀʲifˠ ˈhemˠ xˠeˈɣʲaθˠinˠ, ˈɢˠasʲ ʁˠinʲ ˈðˠimˠ ˈhemˠ xˠiˈqʲə̃d͡ʒinˠ, ˈɢˠasʲ ʁˠinʲ ˈdˠifˠ ˈɓˠaisˠ]

ʁˠinʲ
PAST heˈɾˠufˠ
pat ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 ˈɗˠidʲ
cat -inˠ
NOM ˈɢˠasʲ
RELPRON ʁˠinʲ
PAST ˈᵏǀʲifˠ
catch ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 xˠeˈɣʲaθˠ
mouse -inˠ
NOM ˈɢˠasʲ
RELPRON ʁˠinʲ
PAST ˈðˠimˠ
eat ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 xˠiˈqʲə̃d͡ʒ
cheese -inˠ
NOM ˈɢˠasʲ
RELPRON ʁˠinʲ
PAST ˈdˠifˠ
buy ˈɓˠaisˠ
1excl

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese that I bought.”

 (26)

Complementation Strategies

Gir introduces complement clauses with a dedicated complementiser, similar to English that. The complementiser appears at the beginning of the embedded clause and signals that the clause functions as a syntactic argument. The embedded clause is fully finite and displays the same tense, aspect and agreement patterns as independent clauses.

The following example illustrate how complement clauses function:

Hemo ʁoiʁoino ʁoini goe heni giamiino zouro þoaxxoẽqiino djekoani ʁoini nciedoero hefi doidjə̃yino.

[ˈhemˠ ˈʁˠiʁˠinˠ ʁˠinʲ ˈɡˠe ˈhenʲ ˈɡʲamʲinˠ ˈzˠuɾˠ θˠaˈxˠə̃qʲinˠ t͡ʃeˈkˠanʲ ʁˠinʲ ᵑǀʲeˈdˠeɾˠ ˈhefʲ dˠit͡ʃə̃jinˠ]

ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 ˈʁˠiʁˠ
boy -inˠ
NOM ʁˠinʲ
PAST ˈɡˠe
give ˈhe
the -nʲ
cl.9 ˈɡʲamʲ
girl -inˠ
NOM ˈzˠu
a -ɾˠ
cl.6 θˠaˈxˠə̃qʲ
apple -inˠ
NOM t͡ʃeˈkˠanʲ
COMP ʁˠinʲ
PAST ᵑǀʲeˈdˠeɾˠ
surprise ˈhe
the -fʲ
cl.3 dˠit͡ʃə̃j
teacher -inˠ
NOM

“It surprised the teacher that the boy had given the girl an apple.”

 (27)

Quotes

Gir expresses quoted or reported speech without a dedicated quotative particle. Quotations appear as ordinary clauses, distinguished only by the surrounding syntactic context or by the use of verbs of speaking.

Here is an example of how quotations are expressed:

Hemo ʁoiʁoino ʁoini qoisi heni giamiino bboaiso viufi ngoauso djekoani.

[ˈhemˠ ˈʁˠiʁˠinˠ ʁˠinʲ ˈqˠisʲ ˈhenʲ ˈɡʲamʲinˠ ˈɓˠaisˠ ˈvʲufʲ ˈŋˠausˠ t͡ʃeˈkˠanʲ]

ˈhe
the -mˠ
cl.2 ˈʁˠiʁˠ
boy -inˠ
NOM ʁˠinʲ
PAST ˈqˠisʲ
tell ˈhe
the -nʲ
cl.9 ˈɡʲamʲ
girl -inˠ
NOM ˈɓˠaisˠ
1excl ˈvʲufʲ
love ˈŋˠausˠ
2 t͡ʃeˈkˠanʲ
COMP

“The boy told the girl that he loved her.”

 (28)

How to cite this grammar

Language Creator. 2026. A Grammar of Gir. Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 25 October 2026. https://languagecreator.org/grammar/6AV8U

In BibTeX format:

@misc{LC-6AV8U,
  year         = 2026,
  author       = {{Language Creator}},
  title        = {A Grammar of {Gir}},
  howpublished = {\url{https://languagecreator.org/grammar/6AV8U}},
  note         = {Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 25 October 2026}
}

Supplementary Materials

A collection of illustrative texts and a bilingual dictionary (English–Gir / Gir–English) accompany this grammar. The complete work – comprising the grammar, dictionary and texts – may also be downloaded in ODT or DOCX format.

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https://languagecreator.org/grammar/6AV8U

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