A Grammar of Sahqag

Introduction

Scope and Purpose

This grammar provides a systematic description of the Sahqag language (the 1050th one produced by the Language Creator), outlining its sound system, word formation and syntactic structure, with the aim of presenting a coherent account of the language as an integrated whole. Attention has been paid to both regular patterns and minor irregularities, as these together define the internal balance of the language.

The grammar is accompanied by a bilingual dictionary and a collection of illustrative texts, offering material for further study and comparison. The examples have been selected to demonstrate typical constructions and to give a sense of the language in extended use. The description is intended as a reference work for linguists and language enthusiasts alike, and as a foundation for any future research, teaching or creative adaptation of Sahqag.

Typological Profile

It has a highly marked collection of glottal, uvular, pharyngeal or epiglottal contrasts, a full set of ejective articulations, a richly elaborated system of click consonants, proper polysynthesis and four genders.

Phonology

Phoneme Inventory

Consonants

Sahqag has an astonishing 291 consonant phonemes, exceeding any consonant system known to the author. The inventory is remarkably extensive.

It has a richly developed retroflex subsystem, an extensive and fully contrastive palatal series, a highly marked collection of glottal, uvular, pharyngeal or epiglottal contrasts, an exceptionally large and contrastive set of fricatives and a highly elaborate approximant system.

The table below presents the full inventory of consonant phonemes in Sahqag. The chart lists all places and manners of articulation attested in the language.

vel. labialpal. labialphar. labialvel. dentalpal. dentallab. dentalphar. dentalvel. alveolarpal. alveolarlab. alveolarphar. alveolarpostalveolarvel. postalveolarpal. postalveolarvel. lateralpal. lateralpalatalvel. retroflexpal. retroflexvel. velarpal. velarlab. velarphar. velarvel. uvularpal. uvularlab. uvularphar. uvularvel. pharyngealpal. pharyngealvel. epiglottalpal. epiglottalglottal
stoppˠ bˠ pʲ bʲ pˤ bˤ dˠ tˠ dʲ tʲ dʷ tʷ dˤ tˤ ɖˠ ʈˠ ɖʲ ʈʲ kˠ ɡˠ kʲ ɡʲ kʷ ɡʷ kˤ ɡˤ qˠ ɢˠ qʲ ɢʲ qʷ ɢʷ qˤ ɢˤ ʡˠ ʡʲ ʔ
aspirated stoppʰˠ pʰʲ pʰˤ tʰˠ tʰʲ tʰʷ tʰˤ ʈʰˠ ʈʰʲ kʰˠ kʰʲ kʰʷ kʰˤ
preaspirated stophpˠ hpʲ hpˤ htˠ htʲ htʷ htˤ hʈˠ hʈʲ hkˠ hkʲ hkʷ hkˤ
breathy stopbʱˠ bʱʲ bʱˤ dʱˠ dʱʲ dʱʷ dʱˤ ɖʱˠ ɖʱʲ ɡʱˠ ɡʱʲ ɡʱʷ ɡʱˤ
ejective stoppˠʼ pʲʼ pˤʼ tˠʼ tʲʼ tʷʼ tˤʼ ʈˠʼ ʈʲʼ kˠʼ kʲʼ kʷʼ kˤʼ qˠʼ qʲʼ qʷʼ qˤʼ
nasalmˠ m̥ˠ mʲ m̥ʲ mˤ m̥ˤ nˠ n̥ˠ nʲ n̥ʲ nʷ n̥ʷ nˤ n̥ˤ ɳˠ ɳ̥ˠ ɳʲ ɳ̥ʲ ŋˠ ŋ̥ˠ ŋʲ ŋ̥ʲ ŋʷ ŋ̥ʷ ŋˤ ŋ̥ˤ ɴˠ ɴʲ ɴʷ ɴˤ
trill/tap/flapr̥ˠ ɾˠ r̥ʲ ɾʲ r̥ʷ ɾʷ r̥ˤ ɾˤ ɺˠ ɺʲ ɽˠ ɽʲ ʜˠ ʜʲ
fricativeɸˠ βˠ ɸʲ βʲ ɸˤ βˤ sˠ zˠ sʲ zʲ sʷ zʷ sˤ zˤ ʃˠ ʒˠ ʃʲ ʒʲ ɬˠ ɮˠ ɬʲ ɮʲ ʂˠ ʐˠ ʂʲ ʐʲ xˠ ɣˠ xʲ ɣʲ xʷ ɣʷ xˤ ɣˤ ʁˠ χˠ ʁʲ χʲ ʁʷ χʷ ʁˤ χˤ ħˠ ʕˠ ħʲ ʕʲ h ɦ
approximantʋˠ ʋʲ ʋˤ ɹˠ ɹʲ ɹʷ ɹˤ ɭˠ ɭʲ j ɻˠ ɻʲ ɰˠ ɰʲ ɰʷ ɰˤ
affricatep͡fˠ p͡fʲ p͡fˤ d͡zˠ t͡sˠ d͡zʲ t͡sʲ d͡zʷ t͡sʷ d͡zˤ t͡sˤ d͡ʒ t͡ʃ tɬˠ tɬʲ d͡ʐˠ t͡ʂˠ d͡ʐʲ t͡ʂʲ k͡xˠ k͡xʲ k͡xʷ k͡xˤ q͡χˠ q͡χʲ q͡χʷ q͡χˤ
implosiveɓˠ ɓʲ ɓˤ ɗˠ ɗʲ ɗʷ ɗˤ ʄˠ ʄʲ ɠˠ ɠʲ ɠʷ ɠˤ ʛˠ ʛʲ ʛʷ ʛˤ
clickᵏǀˠ ᵏǀʰˠ ᵏǀʲ ᵏǀʰʲ ᵏǀʷ ᵏǀʰʷ ᵏǀˤ ᵏǀʰˤ ᵏǁˠ ᵏǁʰˠ ᵏǁʲ ᵏǁʰʲ
ejective clickᵏǀˠʼ ᵏǀʲʼ ᵏǀʷʼ ᵏǀˤʼ ᵏǁˠʼ ᵏǁʲʼ
click, nasalᵑǀˠ ᵑǀʲ ᵑǀʷ ᵑǀˤ ᵑǁˠ ᵑǁʲ
ejective click, nasalᵑǀˠʼ ᵑǀʲʼ ᵑǀʷʼ ᵑǀˤʼ ᵑǁˠʼ ᵑǁʲʼ

Vowels

Sahqag has more than 14 vowel qualities. This constitutes an exceptionally rich vowel inventory, with numerous distinct categories represented in the chart.

It has a fully developed system of nasal vowels matching the oral height distinctions, a fully contrastive long–short vowel distinction across the system, a highly marked system where syllables may lack audible vowels entirely, a maximally “square” vowel system balancing heights across backness and a full range of vowel qualities even in reduced syllables.

The table below presents the full inventory of vowel phonemes in Sahqag. The system comprises the distinct vowel qualities listed in the chart.

frontcentralback
closei ĩ ɨ ɨ̃ u ũ
close-mide ẽ ɘ ɘ̃ o õ
open-midɛ ɛ̃ ɜ ɜ̃ ɔ ɔ̃
opena ã

Stress and Tones

Sahqag has phonemic stress and 6 lexical tones. Each lexical item carries a tonal specification associated with the first vowel of the root, which determines the overall tonal contour of the word.

Phonological Processes

Vowel Harmony

The language employs vowel harmony. To be specific, the following vowels change to match the first vowel of the root: /i/ becomes /i#/, /u/ becomes /u#/, /ɨ/ becomes /ɨ#/, /e/ becomes /e#/, /o/ becomes /o#/, /ɘ/ becomes /ɘ#/, /ɛ/ becomes /ɛ#/, /ɔ/ becomes /ɔ#/, /ɜ/ becomes /ɜ#/, /a/ becomes /a#/.

Writing System

Introduction

Sahqag is an unwritten language. For that reason, all examples in this grammar are given exclusively in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which offers a precise and widely recognised means of recording its sounds.

Orthography

Sahqagis an unwritten language, so it does not make any sense to discuss its orthography.

Word Classes and Morphology

Number and Gender

Number

Sahqag does not have grammatical number.

Gender

Sahqag has the following genders:

Gender cl.1 – for instance: hpʲᵊʂˠqˠɛː꜒fˤ ‘smoke’, kˠɛ#꜒꜖ʕʲ ‘year’, mˠo꜖꜒d͡zʲ ‘thin’, pʼˠɘ#ːɹʲḭ꜖ɸˤ ‘ash’, qˠɨ꜖꜒mʲ ‘wife’, sʷkʼʷɛŋʲai꜒꜖tʼˤ ‘student’, tʰˤa#̰꜖ʈʲ ‘mother’, tʷɨʃʲhkʲᵊ̰꜖ɰˠ ‘bosom’, tˠa꜖ɣˤ ‘money’, vʲɘ̰꜒nʲ ‘night’, zʲɡʲɜ꜖sʷ ‘correct’, zʷdʲɜ꜖ʃˠ ‘west’, ɣˠoː꜖d͡zˠ ‘daughter’, ɰˤɜp͡fˤe꜖ʃˠ ‘horn’, ɹʷi꜒꜖ɖʱʲ ‘long’, ʈʰʲiɢˤaḭ꜒ɠˤ ‘sand’, ʒʲbˠɜ꜒qˠ ‘old’, ʛʷḛ꜒ɓʲ ‘near’, ᵏǀʼˠimˤi꜒nʷ ‘thick’, ᵑǀʼˤɜːqʲau꜒ɸʲ ‘anus’.

Gender cl.2 – for instance: fˠe#ː꜒꜖tʼˤ ‘surface’, htʲu#ːɢʲi꜒꜖ɓˠ ‘restaurant’, qʼʷɘ꜒ɽʲ ‘son’, tʼʲɨʁˤeː̰꜖ɸˤ ‘God’, zˠkʰʲiːsˤqˤɛ꜖꜒ʂˠ ‘dialect’, zˤʈʼʲɘ̰꜖kʼʲ ‘left’, zˤʈˠa꜖ŋʷ ‘top’, ɮˠisˤpˠa̰꜖βˤ ‘breast’, ɴˠɜ꜒fˠ ‘good’, ɹʲɔʂˠᵊ꜖꜒ʐˠ ‘slime’, ʁʲɛ#ʐʲpˠau꜖ʐʲ ‘knee’, ʁˠo#ɺʲᵊ꜖꜒ ‘market’, ʃʲqʲi꜖꜒d͡zʲ ‘wind’, ʈʰˠaːkʼʷɔ̰꜖vʲ ‘teacher’, ʐˠɖʲɘ#zˠɡʷo꜒βˠ ‘mouse’, ʐˠɢˤᵊɣʷɔ#ː̰꜖t͡sˠ ‘tail’, ʡʲu#ːɰʲɨ#꜖rˤ ‘fingernail’, ᵏǀʼˤozˠɡʷoː̰꜒q͡χʲ ‘library’, ᵏǁʼʲɜː꜖꜒sˠ ‘book’, ᵏǁˠu꜖bʱˤ ‘face’.

Gender cl.3 – for instance: dˤɔ#꜖ɰʷ ‘new’, dˤɛ#ːʒʲpʼˠi꜖꜒tʷ ‘straight’, kʼˠoː꜖꜒ɥˠ ‘heavy’, r̥ʲe#ːɠˠɛː꜒꜖ɹʲ ‘school’, sʷkʰˤiː꜖ɓˤ ‘moon’, sʷtʲḭ꜒bˠ ‘hair’, tʼˠe꜖pʼʲ ‘wide’, zʲkˠo#ɾʲɛ꜒꜖xʷ ‘mountain’, zʲɡˤa#꜒꜖ɥˠ ‘sky’, ɓˤazˠʈˠiː꜖ɗʲ ‘binoculars’, ɭʲᵊ꜒꜖tʼˤ ‘foot’, ʂʲkʲɔ#ː꜖ʈʼˠ ‘some’, ʂˠɨɗˤuː̰꜖ŋʷ ‘machine’, ʃʲkʰˠɘ#ː꜒ɡʲ ‘sea’, ʃˠhkˠa#̰꜖ʈʼʲ ‘big’, ʃˠqʼˤɔː꜒꜖ħˠ ‘road’, ʃˠtˠau꜖ɻʲ ‘mouth’, ʒʲhpˤi꜒ħʲ ‘cold’, ʒˠdʱʲo#ː꜒꜖ʁʷ ‘dry’, ᵑǀʷɛːk͡xʷi#̰꜒ʂʲ ‘furious’.

Gender cl.4 – for instance: pʰˤusʷʡˠɔ꜒꜖ɰˤ ‘bark’, pʼˠɔːɖʲɛ꜖꜒d͡ʐˠ ‘embrace’, p͡fˤɘ#ːʐʲdʱʲḛ꜒d͡zʷ ‘snow’, sˤe꜒p͡fˤ ‘green’, sˤkʰʲɨ꜒꜖kʼʲ ‘whole’, sˤkʼˠa#̰꜖ɹʲ ‘leaf’, t͡ʂˠuː꜒ɺˠ ‘dog’, zˤbˤɘ̰꜖ɬˠ ‘animal’, zˤdʱʷoʒˠdˤɛː꜖꜒bʲ ‘apple’, ɴˠeː꜖꜒ʈʼˠ ‘hand’, ɺˠe#꜖꜒mˤ ‘manner’, ʂʲhtʲaʂˠʔɨ#̰꜖tʷ ‘snake’, ʃʲʈʰˠɘ̰꜒nˠ ‘happy’, ʃˠhʈˠɛ#ː̰꜖ʈˠ ‘colour’, ʐʲɨ#꜖꜒ɹʷ ‘sound’, ʒʲa#ː̰꜖qˠ ‘nose’, ʒˠitʼˠɔː̰꜖vˤ ‘smooth’, χˤᵊrʷi꜖ʔ ‘feather’, ᵏǀʲe꜒rˤ ‘fight’, ᵑǀˤɛ꜒χʷ ‘speech’.

The Nominal Phrase

Nominal phrases in Sahqag can be exemplified by the following example:

[kʼʷɜɹˤ sˠtˤa̰꜒rˠ ɥˤãɺˠ ʐˠɖʲɘ̃̃zˠɡʷõ꜒βˠ ʂˠkʷoː̰꜒ɡˤ ɽʲɔkˤe꜖kʲ ʒʲɢˠɨ̰꜒vˤ ʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ sˤkʼʷã̃꜖꜒ʈˠ ʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ sʷtʰʲɘ̃̃ʃˠʈʲã꜖꜒kˤ ʐʲa̰꜖kˤ ɢʷɔ̃ːbʱˤẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ]

kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
sˠtˤa̰꜒rˠ
catch
ɥˤãɺˠ
3.cl.4.POSS
ʐˠɖʲɘ̃zˠɡʷo꜒βˠ
mouse
ʂˠkʷoː̰꜒ɡˤ
three
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
kˤe꜖kʲ
yon
ʒʲɢˠɨ̰꜒vˤ
blind
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
sˤkʼʷã꜖꜒ʈˠ
woman
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
sʷtʰʲɘ̃ʃˠʈʲa꜖꜒kˤ
COMIT
ʐʲa̰꜖kˤ
knife
ɢʷɔːbʱˤ-
cl.3
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT

“The woman with the knife caught those three blind mice.”

(1)

In the following, we shall look at the various components in more details.

The nominal phrase clitics in Sahqag fall into two categories, proclitics and enclitics: a clitic expressing possessor, comprising htˤɛ#ːq͡χʷ ‘1incl’, ʐʲqʼʷɜʐˠ ‘1excl’, ʂˠpʰʲo#p͡fˤ ‘2’, htʷadʷ ‘3.cl.1’, ʃʲpʼʲɨɡˠ ‘3.cl.2’, sˤhpˠɜɓˤ ‘3.cl.3’ and ɥˤa#ɺˠ ‘3.cl.4’ followed by a clitic expressing case, comprising sʲɛ#ːɻˠ ‘ACT’, ʂʲpʼˤɨ#t͡sʷ ‘DAT’, sʲeɳʲ ‘INS’, sʷpʼˤu#ːxˠ ‘VOC’, sʲtʼʲo#kʼˤ ‘ALL’, sʲuʁʲ ‘LOC’, t͡ʂʲiːɡʷ ‘ABL’ and sʷtʷɘr̥ʲ ‘PART’.

The morphology of the elements of the nominal phrase, i.e., nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns, is described below, as is the way that possession is expressed in Sahqag.

The Noun

The noun in Sahqag stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

The noun displays the following derivational morphology: 39 prefixes, namely bʱʲoʈʲ- ‘little’, sˤqˤɨ#sʲhʈʲ- ‘big’, ᵏǀʲeːzʷʔ- ‘old’, t͡ʃɨʁʲ- ‘new’, ɳ̥ˠɛqˠ- ‘good’, ʃˠkˠaːʐˠdʱˠ- ‘bad’, nˠɜ#ːqʼʷ- ‘make’, sʷtʰˠuːɻʲ- ‘help’, ɹʷeːsˤ- ‘have’, ʒʲqʼʷo#ʈʼʲ- ‘use’, ʐˠtʲa#ːzˤ- ‘see’, ɖʱˠo#ʂʲhtʷ- ‘break’, zˠkʰˤɔʒʲkʼʲ- ‘eat’, sˠtʰˤɜːn̥ʲ- ‘drink’, ɣʲɛɬˠ- ‘wear’, ʃˠʈʲasʲkʰʲ- ‘own’, ʃʲkˤaɠʲ- ‘contain’, pʲe#sˠqʼˤ- ‘hold’, tʼˠᵊʃʲhkʷ- ‘lack’, ɡˤɔ#ᵑǀʷ- ‘touch’, pʼˤedˤ- ‘carry’, ᵑǀʼˠɘ#sʷtʰʲ- ‘find’, sʷpʼˤɨʋˤ- ‘hunt’, ʃʲkʰʷaʐʲɡʲ- ‘guard’, k͡xʷɨ#ːfˠ- ‘search’, ɥʲu#ːbˠ- ‘learn’, ʒʲgʱʷidʷ- ‘teach’, dʷɜɥˠ- ‘follow’, ʒʲhpˠoʒˠhpʲ- ‘chase’, zˠhtʲeːʃʲhkʷ- ‘build’, xʲa#ːzˠkʼˠ- ‘burn’, sʷhʈˠɔːʒʲgʱʷ- ‘hit’, vˤoːᵑǁˠ- ‘take’, ɬʲiʂˠpʼˤ- ‘cut’, ɢˤɨ#ʐʲɖʲ- ‘hear’, ʃˠtʼˠohpʲ- ‘know’, m̥ˠɨ#ːʐˠdʱˤ- ‘love’, ɴʷaʈʰˠ- ‘protect’ and qʼˠᵊkˠ- ‘possess’

The Adjective

The adjective in Sahqag stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Numerals

The numeral in Sahqag stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Determiners

In Sahqag, the determiner has the following structure: an optional prefix expressing gender, comprising ɽʲɔʁˠ- ‘cl.2’, ɢʷɔːbʱˤ- ‘cl.3’ and qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ- ‘cl.4’ followed by the root.

Pronouns

The pronoun in Sahqag stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

In Sahqag, both subject and object pronouns are dropped unless they are stressed. Here is an example where neither of the pronouns are stressed:

[ɾˠɔɾʲ m̥ˠɨ̃̃ːʃˠkʲɔ̃̃ː꜒꜖sʷ]

ɾˠɔɾʲ
POS.active.PRES
m̥ˠɨ̃ːʐˠdʱˤ-
love
ʃˠkʲɔ̃ː꜒꜖sʷ
girl

“He (the boy) loves her (the girl).”

(2)

But here, the word corresponding to he is stressed:

[ɾˠɔɾʲ m̥ˠɨ̃̃ːʃˠkʲɔ̃̃ː꜒꜖sʷ zʲkʼʲḭ꜖ʋˤ]

ɾˠɔɾʲ
POS.active.PRES
m̥ˠɨ̃ːʐˠdʱˤ-
love
ʃˠkʲɔ̃ː꜒꜖sʷ
girl
zʲkʼʲḭ꜖ʋˤ
3.cl.2

He loves her.”

(3)

And here, it is the one translated as her that is stressed:

[ɾˠɔɾʲ m̥ˠɨ̃̃ːʃˠkʲɔ̃̃ː꜒꜖sʷ]

ɾˠɔɾʲ
POS.active.PRES
m̥ˠɨ̃ːʐˠdʱˤ-
love
ʃˠkʲɔ̃ː꜒꜖sʷ
girl

“He loves her.”

(4)

Proper Nouns

[ɾˠɔɾʲ t͡ʂˠɜŋʷɔ꜖ɓˠ sʲpˠã̃ːpʼʲɜ̃꜒gʱˠ ʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ ᵏǀʼˤɛdʲe꜒꜖ʈˠ ɽʲɔ̃ʁˠẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ]

ɾˠɔɾʲ
POS.active.PRES
t͡ʂˠɜŋʷɔ꜖ɓˠ
hate
sʲpˠãːpʼʲɜ꜒gʱˠ
Spaperg
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ᵏǀʼˤɛdʲe꜒꜖ʈˠ
Kedet
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT

“Kedet hates Spaperg.”

(5)

Possession

[ʃʲpʼʲɨɡˠ zˤdʱʷoʒˠdˤɛː꜖꜒bʲ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ zˠhpˤɔ̰꜒mˤ ɽʲɔ̃ʁˠẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ]

ʃʲpʼʲɨɡˠ
3.cl.2.POSS
zˤdʱʷoʒˠdˤɛː꜖꜒bʲ
apple
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
zˠhpˤɔ̰꜒mˤ
boy
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the

“the boy’s apple”

(6)

[ʃʲpʼʲɨɡˠ zˤdʱʷoʒˠdˤɛː꜖꜒bʲ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ zʲkʼʲḭ꜖ʋˤ]

ʃʲpʼʲɨɡˠ
3.cl.2.POSS
zˤdʱʷoʒˠdˤɛː꜖꜒bʲ
apple
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
zʲkʼʲḭ꜖ʋˤ
3.cl.2

“his (the boy’s) apple”

(7)

[ʐʲqʼʷɜʐˠ zˤdʱʷoʒˠdˤɛː꜖꜒bʲ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ]

ʐʲqʼʷɜʐˠ
1excl.POSS
zˤdʱʷoʒˠdˤɛː꜖꜒bʲ
apple
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the

“my apple”

(8)

[kʼʷɜɹˤ kʰʷɘ̃̃ːŋˠõ꜖ʋʲ ɥˤãɺˠ qʼʷɘ꜒ɽʲ ɽʲɔ̃ʁˠẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ ʂˠpʰʲõp͡fˤ ʃʲpʰˠuzʷqˤuː꜖ŋˠ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ ʃʲpʼʲɨɡˠ ɣˠoː꜖d͡zˠ ʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ kʼˠẽzˠtʼʷĩ̃ː̰꜒ɴˠ ɽʲɔ̃ʁˠẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ]

kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
kʰʷɘ̃ːŋˠo꜖ʋʲ
kiss
ɥˤãɺˠ
3.cl.4.POSS
qʼʷɘ꜒ɽʲ
son
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ʂˠpʰʲõp͡fˤ
2.POSS
ʃʲpʰˠuzʷqˤuː꜖ŋˠ
neighbour
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ʃʲpʼʲɨɡˠ
3.cl.2.POSS
ɣˠoː꜖d͡zˠ
daughter
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
kʼˠezˠtʼʷĩː̰꜒ɴˠ
hunter
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT

“The hunter’s daughter kissed your neighbour’s son.”

(9)

Derivation

[ʡˠɛ̃̃ːʒʲbʱˤũː꜒rˤ qʼʲuːᵏǀˤtʼʲa꜒rˠ]

ʡˠɛ̃ːʒʲbʱˤuː꜒rˤ
lamb
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
tʼʲa꜒rˠ
a

“a lamb”

(10)

[bʱʲõʈʲɛ̃̃ːʒʲbʱˤũː꜒rˤ qʼʲuːᵏǀˤtʼʲa꜒rˠ]

bʱʲoʈʲ-
little
ʡˠɛ̃ːʒʲbʱˤuː꜒rˤ
lamb
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
tʼʲa꜒rˠ
a

“a little lamb”

(11)

[kʼʷɜɹˤ htʲiː꜖ʄʲ bʱʲõʈʲɛ̃̃ːʒʲbʱˤũː꜒rˤ qʼʲuːᵏǀˤtʼʲa꜒rˠ]

kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
htʲiː꜖ʄʲ
have
bʱʲoʈʲ-
little
ʡˠɛ̃ːʒʲbʱˤuː꜒rˤ
lamb
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
tʼʲa꜒rˠ
a

“She had a little lamb.”

(12)

[kʼʷɜɹˤ tˤuhtʲiː꜖ʄʲ]

kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
tˤuʐʲgʱʷ-
want
htʲiː꜖ʄʲ
have

“She wanted to have a little lamb.”

(13)

[kʼʷɜɹˤ p͡fʲo꜖ʈʼˠ kʼʲu꜒rʲ kʼʷɜɹˤ ɰʲɘ̃ːrˠ htʲiː꜖ʄʲ bʱʲõʈʲɛ̃̃ːʒʲbʱˤũː꜒rˤ qʼʲuːᵏǀˤtʼʲa꜒rˠ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ]

kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
p͡fʲo꜖ʈʼˠ
want
kʼʲu꜒rʲ
often
kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
ɰʲɘ̃ːrˠ
COMP
htʲiː꜖ʄʲ
have
bʱʲoʈʲ-
little
ʡˠɛ̃ːʒʲbʱˤuː꜒rˤ
lamb
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
tʼʲa꜒rˠ
a
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT

“She often wanted to have a little lamb.”

(14)

[sʲɔ̃k͡xʲ ʒˠɡʲɘβˠ ʃˠtʼʷɨ꜖ɹˠ kʼʷɜɹˤ ɰʲɘ̃ːrˠ sˠhpʲũ̃꜖ʕʲ kʼʷɜɹˤ ɰʲɘ̃ːrˠ p͡fʲo꜖ʈʼˠ kʼʲu꜒rʲ kʼʷɜɹˤ ɰʲɘ̃ːrˠ htʲiː꜖ʄʲ bʱʲõʈʲɛ̃̃ːʒʲbʱˤũː꜒rˤ qʼʲuːᵏǀˤtʼʲa꜒rˠ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ zʲdʱʲɔː꜖꜒vˤ]

sʲɔ̃k͡xʲ
NEG.active.PRES
ʒˠɡʲɘβˠ
Q
ʃˠtʼʷɨ꜖ɹˠ
be
kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
ɰʲɘ̃ːrˠ
COMP
sˠhpʲũ꜖ʕʲ
think
kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
ɰʲɘ̃ːrˠ
COMP
p͡fʲo꜖ʈʼˠ
want
kʼʲu꜒rʲ
often
kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
ɰʲɘ̃ːrˠ
COMP
htʲiː꜖ʄʲ
have
bʱʲoʈʲ-
little
ʡˠɛ̃ːʒʲbʱˤuː꜒rˤ
lamb
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
tʼʲa꜒rˠ
a
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT
zʲdʱʲɔː꜖꜒vˤ
3.cl.1

“Are you not one of those who thought that she often wanted to have a little lamb?”

(15)

Compounding

Verbs

Inflectional Categories

The verbal phrase clitics in Sahqag fall into two categories, proclitics and enclitics: first, a clitic expressing comp, comprising ɰʲɘ#ːrˠ ‘COMP’; second, a clitic expressing question, comprising ʒˠɡʲɘβˠ ‘Q’; third, a clitic expressing indobj.obj.subj, comprising n̥ʷaŋˤ ‘none.none.1incl’, ʐˠhpˠeʄʲ ‘none.none.1excl’, ʒˠdʱʷɔʐʲ ‘none.none.2’, ɓʲɘ#ːɸʲ ‘none.none.3.cl.1’, sʲqʼˠᵊħˠ ‘none.none.3.cl.2’, hpˠɨ#dˠ ‘none.none.3.cl.3’, mʲɜːɹʷ ‘none.none.3.cl.4’, ʐˠtˠɘpʼˠ ‘none.1incl.1incl’, ɬʲe#ːpʲ ‘none.1incl.1excl’, ᵏǀʼʷɘ#k͡xʲ ‘none.1incl.2’, fˠemˤ ‘none.1incl.3.cl.1’, sˠhpʲinʷ ‘none.1incl.3.cl.2’, p͡fˤe#ːq͡χˤ ‘none.1incl.3.cl.3’, vˤɨχˤ ‘none.1incl.3.cl.4’, βˤaɸˤ ‘none.1excl.1incl’, dʷɨɴˤ ‘none.1excl.1excl’, hi#ːɣˤ ‘none.1excl.2’, ᵏǀʼʲɘɗˤ ‘none.1excl.3.cl.1’, sˠhtˠɨʈʼˠ ‘none.1excl.3.cl.2’, ʁˤeːxʲ ‘none.1excl.3.cl.3’, ɡʲa#ːʕˠ ‘none.1excl.3.cl.4’, zˠpʼˠᵊrʲ ‘none.2.1incl’, ŋ̥ˤoːnˤ ‘none.2.1excl’, pʰˤɔ#zʷ ‘none.2.2’, ʃʲtʲer̥ʷ ‘none.2.3.cl.1’, fʲɨɸˠ ‘none.2.3.cl.2’, ʃʲʔɛːʋʲ ‘none.2.3.cl.3’, p͡fˤoːp͡fˤ ‘none.2.3.cl.4’, sʷpˠɘ#ɮˠ ‘none.3.cl.1.1incl’, sˠkʷerˤ ‘none.3.cl.1.1excl’, gʱˤɜɥˠ ‘none.3.cl.1.2’, nʲatˤ ‘none.3.cl.1.3.cl.1’, ɳ̥ˠɛ#ːkʼˠ ‘none.3.cl.1.3.cl.2’, ʒʲʈʲɛd͡ʐˠ ‘none.3.cl.1.3.cl.3’, zʲhʈˠɜ#ɢʲ ‘none.3.cl.1.3.cl.4’, sʲhkʷi#ːp͡fʲ ‘none.3.cl.2.1incl’, ɡˠixʲ ‘none.3.cl.2.1excl’, kˠafˠ ‘none.3.cl.2.2’, ᵏǀˠiʃʲ ‘none.3.cl.2.3.cl.1’, tˤir̥ʲ ‘none.3.cl.2.3.cl.2’, m̥ʲɜt͡sʲ ‘none.3.cl.2.3.cl.3’, ɦɨzʲ ‘none.3.cl.2.3.cl.4’, htˤɘ#ːʂˠ ‘none.3.cl.3.1incl’, ʒʲkʰʷeɡʲ ‘none.3.cl.3.1excl’, bˠɔʁˤ ‘none.3.cl.3.2’, ʋˠᵊɹʲ ‘none.3.cl.3.3.cl.1’, ʂʲkʰˠubʱˤ ‘none.3.cl.3.3.cl.2’, ᵑǀʲɛɮʲ ‘none.3.cl.3.3.cl.3’, t͡sʲɛpʼˤ ‘none.3.cl.3.3.cl.4’, kˠɜːqʼˤ ‘none.3.cl.4.1incl’, ʃˠaːɗˠ ‘none.3.cl.4.1excl’, ʃˠtˤa#ːɾˠ ‘none.3.cl.4.2’, zʲtˤad͡ʐʲ ‘none.3.cl.4.3.cl.1’, ʂʲpʼˠiːɗˤ ‘none.3.cl.4.3.cl.2’, sʲhkʷavˤ ‘none.3.cl.4.3.cl.3’, gʱˠɛsʷ ‘none.3.cl.4.3.cl.4’, ᵑǀʼʷɘqʼʷ ‘1incl.none.1incl’, htˤaːʛˤ ‘1incl.none.1excl’, htʷɛsʷ ‘1incl.none.2’, ɗˠa#ːnʷ ‘1incl.none.3.cl.1’, ʐˠurˤ ‘1incl.none.3.cl.2’, sˤhkˤatʼʷ ‘1incl.none.3.cl.3’, ʒˠɖʱˠɛ#ːɰˤ ‘1incl.none.3.cl.4’, t͡sˠed͡zˠ ‘1incl.1incl.1incl’, ʐˠkˠafʲ ‘1incl.1incl.1excl’, hkʲeʁʲ ‘1incl.1incl.2’, zˤtʲadˤ ‘1incl.1incl.3.cl.1’, sʷʈʼˠᵊŋˠ ‘1incl.1incl.3.cl.2’, ʛˠu#ːqˠ ‘1incl.1incl.3.cl.3’, zˠpʰˠuːɣˤ ‘1incl.1incl.3.cl.4’, ŋˠaɡˠ ‘1incl.1excl.1incl’, ʂʲkʼˠu#sʷ ‘1incl.1excl.1excl’, ʃʲɜːɾʷ ‘1incl.1excl.2’, zˠtˤi#ːtʷ ‘1incl.1excl.3.cl.1’, kˤɨp͡fˤ ‘1incl.1excl.3.cl.2’, sˠtʼʲeːnʲ ‘1incl.1excl.3.cl.3’, zˤdˠoːʂˠ ‘1incl.1excl.3.cl.4’, ʃˠɔ#ːɣʲ ‘1incl.2.1incl’, hʈʲɨ#ɽˠ ‘1incl.2.1excl’, dʱʲuːqˤ ‘1incl.2.2’, ɖʲeːrˤ ‘1incl.2.3.cl.1’, ʒʲqʷɜ#r̥ˤ ‘1incl.2.3.cl.2’, ʁˠɔɗˠ ‘1incl.2.3.cl.3’, ʄˠiŋˤ ‘1incl.2.3.cl.4’, ᵑǁʼˠokʼʲ ‘1incl.3.cl.1.1incl’, t͡sʷoʐˠ ‘1incl.3.cl.1.1excl’, zʷqʷikʼˤ ‘1incl.3.cl.1.2’, sʲkʷiːβˤ ‘1incl.3.cl.1.3.cl.1’, zˤʈʰʲifˤ ‘1incl.3.cl.1.3.cl.2’, ʋʲiːtʼʷ ‘1incl.3.cl.1.3.cl.3’, ᵏǁˠɘrˤ ‘1incl.3.cl.1.3.cl.4’, zˠpˠɨɗˠ ‘1incl.3.cl.2.1incl’, ʐʲɢʷe#ːmˠ ‘1incl.3.cl.2.1excl’, ɳ̥ˠɔ#ːʄʲ ‘1incl.3.cl.2.2’, ʋˤaːɽˠ ‘1incl.3.cl.2.3.cl.1’, ɖˠaɭʲ ‘1incl.3.cl.2.3.cl.2’, zʲɖʱˠɨʜʲ ‘1incl.3.cl.2.3.cl.3’, ᵏǁˠɜ#d͡ʒ ‘1incl.3.cl.2.3.cl.4’, hᵊʐˠ ‘1incl.3.cl.3.1incl’, zʲɡˤɔːʛˤ ‘1incl.3.cl.3.1excl’, ʂˠtˠoɗˠ ‘1incl.3.cl.3.2’, ʃˠpʰʲɔtʷ ‘1incl.3.cl.3.3.cl.1’, ŋ̥ʷoɣˤ ‘1incl.3.cl.3.3.cl.2’, sˠhpʲaɹˤ ‘1incl.3.cl.3.3.cl.3’, hkˤɔ#lˠ ‘1incl.3.cl.3.3.cl.4’, d͡ʐˠɜ#sʲ ‘1incl.3.cl.4.1incl’, ʂʲʈʰˠɔ#rˤ ‘1incl.3.cl.4.1excl’, mˤoʈʼʲ ‘1incl.3.cl.4.2’, d͡zʷɘ#ːʁʲ ‘1incl.3.cl.4.3.cl.1’, bʲo#fˤ ‘1incl.3.cl.4.3.cl.2’, tʼʲɜ#ɣˠ ‘1incl.3.cl.4.3.cl.3’, dʱˠuɠˤ ‘1incl.3.cl.4.3.cl.4’, ʐʲixʲ ‘1excl.none.1incl’, ɠˤɘh ‘1excl.none.1excl’, sˤkʰʲut͡ʂʲ ‘1excl.none.2’, ɓˤit͡sˠ ‘1excl.none.3.cl.1’, sˠqʼˤɘːbˤ ‘1excl.none.3.cl.2’, ᵑǁʲokʼʲ ‘1excl.none.3.cl.3’, ʈʼʲɜ#ːʒˠ ‘1excl.none.3.cl.4’, ʃʲpʰˠu#zˤ ‘1excl.1incl.1incl’, ᵏǀʼˠɨɥˤ ‘1excl.1incl.1excl’, sʷqʼʲɘ#ːnˤ ‘1excl.1incl.2’, ɖʱʲeːɖʲ ‘1excl.1incl.3.cl.1’, sˤhkˠɨ#tɬʲ ‘1excl.1incl.3.cl.2’, ᵏǀʼˤɜ#ːnʲ ‘1excl.1incl.3.cl.3’, d͡zˠuɽʲ ‘1excl.1incl.3.cl.4’, sˤeːkʼˤ ‘1excl.1excl.1incl’, ɰʷɘ#ːɽʲ ‘1excl.1excl.1excl’, ʐʲhtˠiʃˠ ‘1excl.1excl.2’, sʷtʼʷᵊɮˠ ‘1excl.1excl.3.cl.1’, ʐˠpʼˠaɣˤ ‘1excl.1excl.3.cl.2’, zʲɛrʲ ‘1excl.1excl.3.cl.3’, t͡sʷᵊsʲ ‘1excl.1excl.3.cl.4’, ʂʲkʰʷɔpˠ ‘1excl.2.1incl’, ɦo#ːrʷ ‘1excl.2.1excl’, ʐʲuŋʷ ‘1excl.2.2’, ɰʷɔ#sʷ ‘1excl.2.3.cl.1’, ʄˠɘʁʷ ‘1excl.2.3.cl.2’, ʕˠu#ːp͡fʲ ‘1excl.2.3.cl.3’, kˤid͡ʐˠ ‘1excl.2.3.cl.4’, ʋʲɘqˠ ‘1excl.3.cl.1.1incl’, ɓʲuŋˠ ‘1excl.3.cl.1.1excl’, ɹʷɨːɰʷ ‘1excl.3.cl.1.2’, sˤhkˠɨrʷ ‘1excl.3.cl.1.3.cl.1’, ʂʲʈˠi#ːqʷ ‘1excl.3.cl.1.3.cl.2’, ʂʲpˠuxʲ ‘1excl.3.cl.1.3.cl.3’, ʂʲpʰˠɛɗˤ ‘1excl.3.cl.1.3.cl.4’, ʃˠʈʼˠɨq͡χʲ ‘1excl.3.cl.2.1incl’, zʲpʰˤɔnʷ ‘1excl.3.cl.2.1excl’, hkˤiːbˤ ‘1excl.3.cl.2.2’, ʂʲqʼˠᵊp͡fʲ ‘1excl.3.cl.2.3.cl.1’, t͡ʂˠaɰˠ ‘1excl.3.cl.2.3.cl.2’, ʂʲʈʼˠɘ#ːɡʷ ‘1excl.3.cl.2.3.cl.3’, ɹˠɨ#t͡sʷ ‘1excl.3.cl.2.3.cl.4’, ɽˠo#ːɰʲ ‘1excl.3.cl.3.1incl’, dʱʷet͡sˤ ‘1excl.3.cl.3.1excl’, zˤkˠᵊpʼˠ ‘1excl.3.cl.3.2’, ʁˤɔɢˠ ‘1excl.3.cl.3.3.cl.1’, sˤtʰˠanʲ ‘1excl.3.cl.3.3.cl.2’, zʷkʰʲefʲ ‘1excl.3.cl.3.3.cl.3’, ʂʲkʼʲɔːɴˤ ‘1excl.3.cl.3.3.cl.4’, sʲtʰˠeːrʲ ‘1excl.3.cl.4.1incl’, ʂʲhkʷi#qˤ ‘1excl.3.cl.4.1excl’, zʷpʼˠɛχʷ ‘1excl.3.cl.4.2’, sʷqʷɘk͡xʲ ‘1excl.3.cl.4.3.cl.1’, ʐʲiːɹˤ ‘1excl.3.cl.4.3.cl.2’, zˤkʼʷɛ#ːɢʲ ‘1excl.3.cl.4.3.cl.3’, m̥ˠaːβʲ ‘1excl.3.cl.4.3.cl.4’, zʷpˤidˤ ‘2.none.1incl’, ʂʲpˤorʷ ‘2.none.1excl’, ʂʲtʷɨ#ːmˠ ‘2.none.2’, ʃʲpʼˠa#ːɠˠ ‘2.none.3.cl.1’, qʷɨʄʲ ‘2.none.3.cl.2’, dʱˤoqʷ ‘2.none.3.cl.3’, ɴʲapʼˠ ‘2.none.3.cl.4’, p͡fˤiɣˤ ‘2.1incl.1incl’, ɖʲɛbˠ ‘2.1incl.1excl’, ʂˠpʼʲɘɽʲ ‘2.1incl.2’, ɮʲɔdˠ ‘2.1incl.3.cl.1’, ʃʲpʼʲot͡sˤ ‘2.1incl.3.cl.2’, ʜʲɔ#ːdʱʷ ‘2.1incl.3.cl.3’, ʒˠʡʲeɰʷ ‘2.1incl.3.cl.4’, sˠtʷaːɰˤ ‘2.1excl.1incl’, sʷʈʰʲᵊɴˠ ‘2.1excl.1excl’, ɮʲifˠ ‘2.1excl.2’, ŋˠɨːlˠ ‘2.1excl.3.cl.1’, zˤotʼʲ ‘2.1excl.3.cl.2’, ʃʲtʰʲɔːʋˠ ‘2.1excl.3.cl.3’, p͡fʲo#nˠ ‘2.1excl.3.cl.4’, qˠᵊp͡fˠ ‘2.2.1incl’, ʃʲtʰʷiːʄˠ ‘2.2.1excl’, ɢʷɨ#sˤ ‘2.2.2’, ɗʷɜ#χˠ ‘2.2.3.cl.1’, mˠᵊħʲ ‘2.2.3.cl.2’, ʒˠtʼˤuːrˤ ‘2.2.3.cl.3’, d͡zˠɔŋˤ ‘2.2.3.cl.4’, ʐʲhtʲarˤ ‘2.3.cl.1.1incl’, nˠɛːvˤ ‘2.3.cl.1.1excl’, ʁˤa#ːɣˠ ‘2.3.cl.1.2’, sʲpʲɔd͡zˤ ‘2.3.cl.1.3.cl.1’, ᵏǀʰʷɨpˠ ‘2.3.cl.1.3.cl.2’, ʃʲpˤuʈʼʲ ‘2.3.cl.1.3.cl.3’, ŋˠᵊd͡zˠ ‘2.3.cl.1.3.cl.4’, bˤɘ#d͡ʒ ‘2.3.cl.2.1incl’, nˠoʡˠ ‘2.3.cl.2.1excl’, ɖˠɘʄʲ ‘2.3.cl.2.2’, htʲuːʡˠ ‘2.3.cl.2.3.cl.1’, bʲuɣʷ ‘2.3.cl.2.3.cl.2’, ᵑǀˠɘɽʲ ‘2.3.cl.2.3.cl.3’, zʷdʲo#ːχʷ ‘2.3.cl.2.3.cl.4’, ʄʲomˤ ‘2.3.cl.3.1incl’, fˠɜːdʱˠ ‘2.3.cl.3.1excl’, d͡ʐʲᵊkˤ ‘2.3.cl.3.2’, p͡fˤe#ːɥˠ ‘2.3.cl.3.3.cl.1’, ᵑǀˠeːrʷ ‘2.3.cl.3.3.cl.2’, ᵏǁˠiqʼʷ ‘2.3.cl.3.3.cl.3’, ɴˤu#ːɽˠ ‘2.3.cl.3.3.cl.4’, ᵏǁˠaːʕˠ ‘2.3.cl.4.1incl’, ɳ̥ʲeʋʲ ‘2.3.cl.4.1excl’, ʃˠtʼʲoːʜˠ ‘2.3.cl.4.2’, ʃˠqʼˠɛːŋˤ ‘2.3.cl.4.3.cl.1’, p͡fˤɔ#tˠ ‘2.3.cl.4.3.cl.2’, ɻˠᵊqʲ ‘2.3.cl.4.3.cl.3’, sʷkʰˤi#ːxˠ ‘2.3.cl.4.3.cl.4’, zʲpʰʲe#rʷ ‘3.cl.1.none.1incl’, tʼʷɨpˤ ‘3.cl.1.none.1excl’, zˤɢˤolˠ ‘3.cl.1.none.2’, ɰʲɘɣˤ ‘3.cl.1.none.3.cl.1’, ʐˠɡˠuːkˠ ‘3.cl.1.none.3.cl.2’, zˤtˤɛːdʷ ‘3.cl.1.none.3.cl.3’, ᵏǁʲi#ɓʲ ‘3.cl.1.none.3.cl.4’, sʲaʋʲ ‘3.cl.1.1incl.1incl’, ʂˠʈʼˠaɰˠ ‘3.cl.1.1incl.1excl’, ʐʲdʷaɰˠ ‘3.cl.1.1incl.2’, lˠɨ#ːʐˠ ‘3.cl.1.1incl.3.cl.1’, ʐʲgʱʲɛɣʷ ‘3.cl.1.1incl.3.cl.2’, ᵏǁʰʲe#ɗʲ ‘3.cl.1.1incl.3.cl.3’, ʜʲɜːɹˠ ‘3.cl.1.1incl.3.cl.4’, ʂʲqˠᵊrˤ ‘3.cl.1.1excl.1incl’, bʱˠoʈˠ ‘3.cl.1.1excl.1excl’, nˠɨkˤ ‘3.cl.1.1excl.2’, ɸʲɔ#χˠ ‘3.cl.1.1excl.3.cl.1’, ʂʲʈʼˠɨːmˤ ‘3.cl.1.1excl.3.cl.2’, χʷidʷ ‘3.cl.1.1excl.3.cl.3’, ᵏǁʼˠɨɹˠ ‘3.cl.1.1excl.3.cl.4’, ʒʲqʼˠisʲ ‘3.cl.1.2.1incl’, zʷdˠeɥʲ ‘3.cl.1.2.1excl’, sʲhkˠu#d͡zˠ ‘3.cl.1.2.2’, ʈˠɛχˤ ‘3.cl.1.2.3.cl.1’, ʐʲtʰʷɨʛʲ ‘3.cl.1.2.3.cl.2’, kʼʷaq͡χˠ ‘3.cl.1.2.3.cl.3’, ʈʼʲiɥˠ ‘3.cl.1.2.3.cl.4’, t͡sʷɘnʲ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.1.1incl’, ŋ̥ˠɔːxʷ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.1.1excl’, ᵑǁʼˠizʷ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.1.2’, vʲiɹˠ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.1.3.cl.1’, kʰˠɛ#nʲ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.1.3.cl.2’, ʄˠo#ɣˤ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.1.3.cl.3’, ʈʼˠɘŋˠ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.1.3.cl.4’, xʷo#ɮˠ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.2.1incl’, k͡xʲɜ#pʼˤ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.2.1excl’, ɢʷᵊχˠ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.2.2’, qʷidʲ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.2.3.cl.1’, ɡˤo#k͡xʲ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.2.3.cl.2’, ɖʱˠɨʁʷ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.2.3.cl.3’, ʐˠqʲiqʼʲ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.2.3.cl.4’, ʃʲtʰˠɨ#sʷ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.3.1incl’, ʂʲtʰʷɘːkʷ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.3.1excl’, sʲpʼʲɘ#ʒˠ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.3.2’, ɴˠa#ːsˠ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.3.3.cl.1’, sʲpʼʲi#ħˠ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.3.3.cl.2’, zˤtʼʷɔ#ːr̥ˠ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.3.3.cl.3’, tʼˠa#ːʋˠ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.3.3.cl.4’, sˤqʼˤɨ#ʃˠ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.4.1incl’, ɴʲuxʲ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.4.1excl’, sˤpʼˤɔmˠ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.4.2’, r̥ˠurʷ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.4.3.cl.1’, zʷʈˠaɥˠ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.4.3.cl.2’, ʐˠpʰˠᵊɢʲ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.4.3.cl.3’, ɹʷᵊʒˠ ‘3.cl.1.3.cl.4.3.cl.4’, ʐʲkˠɔsʲ ‘3.cl.2.none.1incl’, ʂˠʡˠa#ːrˤ ‘3.cl.2.none.1excl’, ɳ̥ˠɔːrʷ ‘3.cl.2.none.2’, sˤhpˤo#ħʲ ‘3.cl.2.none.3.cl.1’, ᵏǀˠe#t͡sʲ ‘3.cl.2.none.3.cl.2’, sˠʈʰˠɨːqˠ ‘3.cl.2.none.3.cl.3’, ʡʲɔ#ːɮʲ ‘3.cl.2.none.3.cl.4’, ʒʲkʰʷarʷ ‘3.cl.2.1incl.1incl’, ʂˠhpʲeɹʷ ‘3.cl.2.1incl.1excl’, sʷtʼˠuːɠˤ ‘3.cl.2.1incl.2’, zʲɢʷɘɸˤ ‘3.cl.2.1incl.3.cl.1’, ʃˠkʼˠuːɡˤ ‘3.cl.2.1incl.3.cl.2’, ʁˠɨk͡xˤ ‘3.cl.2.1incl.3.cl.3’, tɬʲɔ#tʷ ‘3.cl.2.1incl.3.cl.4’, ɾʷɘxʲ ‘3.cl.2.1excl.1incl’, ʃʲʡʲᵊʄˠ ‘3.cl.2.1excl.1excl’, kʰˤɔχˤ ‘3.cl.2.1excl.2’, kʰˠɨtʼʲ ‘3.cl.2.1excl.3.cl.1’, ɹʷɜʂʲ ‘3.cl.2.1excl.3.cl.2’, n̥ʲɨ#dˠ ‘3.cl.2.1excl.3.cl.3’, htˠɨ#rˠ ‘3.cl.2.1excl.3.cl.4’, gʱˤaɓˤ ‘3.cl.2.2.1incl’, ʃˠtʰˠaxˤ ‘3.cl.2.2.1excl’, zʲhtˤaːɳˠ ‘3.cl.2.2.2’, dˤe#sˠ ‘3.cl.2.2.3.cl.1’, sˠʈʲɛ#ːnˠ ‘3.cl.2.2.3.cl.2’, ʂʲhkˤaɺʲ ‘3.cl.2.2.3.cl.3’, pʲɘ#fˠ ‘3.cl.2.2.3.cl.4’, ʐʲʈʰˠɨ#ːɳʲ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.1.1incl’, nʷɜ#ːʂʲ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.1.1excl’, dʱˠɨɰˠ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.1.2’, ʈʼˠeŋˤ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.1.3.cl.1’, nˤɜ#qʼˠ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.1.3.cl.2’, sˤhkˤuʛʷ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.1.3.cl.3’, ʂʲkʰˠu#ːq͡χʲ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.1.3.cl.4’, ɳʲɨʕˠ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.2.1incl’, ʁˠɔɖʱʲ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.2.1excl’, ʂˠpʰˤalʲ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.2.2’, ɸˠɘʐʲ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.2.3.cl.1’, gʱˤoːʡʲ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.2.3.cl.2’, ʃˠkʼˤaɰˤ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.2.3.cl.3’, zˤtʼˠɨɾˤ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.2.3.cl.4’, ʐʲtˠɛ#ːzʷ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.3.1incl’, ɽˠɘʋʲ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.3.1excl’, hpˤoːmˤ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.3.2’, zˤʈˠɜɰˠ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.3.3.cl.1’, sˤʡʲɛqʼʲ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.3.3.cl.2’, kʼʲɜ#t͡ʃ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.3.3.cl.3’, ʈʲiːʛˤ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.3.3.cl.4’, zˠqʼˤɨːd͡zʲ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.4.1incl’, ʂˠqˤaːq͡χʷ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.4.1excl’, sʲpʼʲɜ#ɥʲ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.4.2’, ɥˠu#ɹʲ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.4.3.cl.1’, xˤaːkʼˤ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.4.3.cl.2’, ʃˠtʰʷɘ#zʷ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.4.3.cl.3’, ʂˠpˤaɹˠ ‘3.cl.2.3.cl.4.3.cl.4’, tʲɛʁˤ ‘3.cl.3.none.1incl’, sʲɔsʲ ‘3.cl.3.none.1excl’, ʡˠɨ#tɬʲ ‘3.cl.3.none.2’, ᵑǁʲa#ːɳʲ ‘3.cl.3.none.3.cl.1’, zʷhkˤipˤ ‘3.cl.3.none.3.cl.2’, ʃʲqˠᵊnʲ ‘3.cl.3.none.3.cl.3’, sˤqˠɘːrʲ ‘3.cl.3.none.3.cl.4’, m̥ˤamˤ ‘3.cl.3.1incl.1incl’, dʱʷiːʈʼʲ ‘3.cl.3.1incl.1excl’, ɗʲe#ːd͡zʷ ‘3.cl.3.1incl.2’, ʒʲpˤeʕˠ ‘3.cl.3.1incl.3.cl.1’, dʱʲᵊɗʷ ‘3.cl.3.1incl.3.cl.2’, zˤbˤaːk͡xˠ ‘3.cl.3.1incl.3.cl.3’, sʷhtʲuʐʲ ‘3.cl.3.1incl.3.cl.4’, qʷiːrʲ ‘3.cl.3.1excl.1incl’, sʲkʼʷɨbʱˠ ‘3.cl.3.1excl.1excl’, ɻʲɜʒˠ ‘3.cl.3.1excl.2’, ʐˠɛɾˠ ‘3.cl.3.1excl.3.cl.1’, sʲtʼˠepʼˤ ‘3.cl.3.1excl.3.cl.2’, zʷʡʲiɡʲ ‘3.cl.3.1excl.3.cl.3’, bˠo#ːħˠ ‘3.cl.3.1excl.3.cl.4’, htˠɨ#mˤ ‘3.cl.3.2.1incl’, qˠeʈʼˠ ‘3.cl.3.2.1excl’, sʷʡˠɨːfʲ ‘3.cl.3.2.2’, χʲɛɡʲ ‘3.cl.3.2.3.cl.1’, ɗʲɨq͡χˠ ‘3.cl.3.2.3.cl.2’, ᵑǀʼˤɘ#ːdʱʷ ‘3.cl.3.2.3.cl.3’, ᵏǀˤɜːɻˠ ‘3.cl.3.2.3.cl.4’, ɻˠoɭˠ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.1.1incl’, kˠɜ#qʼˤ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.1.1excl’, ʐˠpʼˠᵊɴˠ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.1.2’, ᵏǁʼʲu#ːt͡sʷ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.1.3.cl.1’, pʼˠɨħʲ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.1.3.cl.2’, ɣˠɜːtˤ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.1.3.cl.3’, ʂˠuχˤ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.1.3.cl.4’, n̥ˤoːɸˤ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.2.1incl’, ʐˠkʼˤi#ɓˠ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.2.1excl’, ʜˠɜːʂˠ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.2.2’, hʈˠɨʋˤ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.2.3.cl.1’, t͡ʂˠa#ːɢʲ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.2.3.cl.2’, huħˠ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.2.3.cl.3’, ʃˠqˠɜɡˤ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.2.3.cl.4’, ɓˠɛ#t͡sʷ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.3.1incl’, n̥ˠɨnʲ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.3.1excl’, bʲɨ#ɹˠ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.3.2’, ʐʲqʼʷɨχˤ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.3.3.cl.1’, q͡χʷᵊɮˠ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.3.3.cl.2’, ᵑǀʼʲɘːpʼˤ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.3.3.cl.3’, ʂʲkˤiɰʲ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.3.3.cl.4’, bʱˤiːmˤ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.4.1incl’, bʱˠɨ#ɸˤ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.4.1excl’, sʷkˠa#ːpˤ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.4.2’, ʒˠhʈʲɨq͡χˤ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.4.3.cl.1’, ʂˠkʲaŋʲ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.4.3.cl.2’, ɮʲɛnˤ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.4.3.cl.3’, ʒˠtʼʷa#ːɡˤ ‘3.cl.3.3.cl.4.3.cl.4’, fˠo#ːʈʲ ‘3.cl.4.none.1incl’, ŋ̥ʲoːɓʲ ‘3.cl.4.none.1excl’, ʒʲisʲ ‘3.cl.4.none.2’, ɖʱˠaβˤ ‘3.cl.4.none.3.cl.1’, tʲɔxʷ ‘3.cl.4.none.3.cl.2’, bʱˤɛːt͡sˤ ‘3.cl.4.none.3.cl.3’, ʂˠtʰˠiħʲ ‘3.cl.4.none.3.cl.4’, ɻʲeʃʲ ‘3.cl.4.1incl.1incl’, hpˠoːɠʲ ‘3.cl.4.1incl.1excl’, zʷɔɻˠ ‘3.cl.4.1incl.2’, ʐˠdʱˠaːfʲ ‘3.cl.4.1incl.3.cl.1’, ɰˤɛkʲ ‘3.cl.4.1incl.3.cl.2’, qʲɘɦ ‘3.cl.4.1incl.3.cl.3’, xʲoːr̥ˠ ‘3.cl.4.1incl.3.cl.4’, xˠɛ#ːsʲ ‘3.cl.4.1excl.1incl’, gʱˤɜːŋˤ ‘3.cl.4.1excl.1excl’, ʃˠtʰʷɛt͡ʂˠ ‘3.cl.4.1excl.2’, χʷɛd͡zʷ ‘3.cl.4.1excl.3.cl.1’, sʲkˤɨkʼˤ ‘3.cl.4.1excl.3.cl.2’, zˠhtʷa#ʜʲ ‘3.cl.4.1excl.3.cl.3’, sʷkʼʷo#ːrʷ ‘3.cl.4.1excl.3.cl.4’, q͡χˠa#χʷ ‘3.cl.4.2.1incl’, fʲoħʲ ‘3.cl.4.2.1excl’, ʐʲpʰˠeɥˤ ‘3.cl.4.2.2’, ʒʲpˠeːɴʷ ‘3.cl.4.2.3.cl.1’, bʱˠɔzʷ ‘3.cl.4.2.3.cl.2’, lˠɨ#ːɴʷ ‘3.cl.4.2.3.cl.3’, ʂʲqʼˤa#ːd͡zˤ ‘3.cl.4.2.3.cl.4’, dʱʲakʼʲ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.1.1incl’, ᵏǀʲoq͡χˤ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.1.1excl’, ʄˠaːq͡χʷ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.1.2’, ʂˠhpˠuʜˠ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.1.3.cl.1’, ʃʲtʰʷᵊj ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.1.3.cl.2’, sˠtʰˠᵊrʲ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.1.3.cl.3’, βˠerˤ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.1.3.cl.4’, qʼʲitɬˠ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.2.1incl’, ʐʲkʲɨ#ɮʲ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.2.1excl’, gʱˠorˤ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.2.2’, zˠɖʲɜɥˤ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.2.3.cl.1’, ʃʲqˤeɰˤ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.2.3.cl.2’, kʰʲe#ːɡʷ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.2.3.cl.3’, hkʷɨɹʷ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.2.3.cl.4’, ʃˠtʼʲe#ːfʲ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.3.1incl’, ʐˠhkˠɛɠʷ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.3.1excl’, hʈʲɛɡʲ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.3.2’, zˠɢˠɘqˤ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.3.3.cl.1’, ʜˠiɠˤ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.3.3.cl.2’, xʷɜːʛʷ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.3.3.cl.3’, sˠʈʰʲɘpʲ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.3.3.cl.4’, sʷkʰʲᵊɡʲ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.4.1incl’, zˠʈˠuːzʷ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.4.1excl’, sʷpˠɨ#bˤ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.4.2’, ʃˠpʼʲidʱˤ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.4.3.cl.1’, kˤɨsʷ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.4.3.cl.2’, hpˤit͡ʂʲ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.4.3.cl.3’ and ʐˠuɹˠ ‘3.cl.4.3.cl.4.3.cl.4’; fourth, a clitic expressing negation.voice.ta, comprising sʲɔ#k͡xʲ ‘NEG.active.PRES’, ɖʱˠiʐˠ ‘NEG.active.PAST’, ɖˠa#ʕˠ ‘NEG.passive.PRES’, ʂʲhkʲiːtʼʷ ‘NEG.passive.PAST’, ɾˠɔɾʲ ‘POS.active.PRES’, kʼʷɜɹˤ ‘POS.active.PAST’, xʷaɢˠ ‘POS.passive.PRES’ and dʱˠiːɭˠ ‘POS.passive.PAST’; and finally, fifth, a clitic expressing mode, comprising ᵏǀʲo#ːʛʲ ‘imperative’, ʛˠɛt͡sˠ ‘conditional’ and ʒʲɖʱʲa#ːqʼˤ ‘optative’.

The verb itself does not have any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

The verb displays the following derivational morphology: 19 prefixes, namely lˠɛ#ːt͡sʷ- ‘begin’, sˠpʰˤɔɢˠ- ‘stop’, ᵏǀʼʲᵊhtˤ- ‘continue’, sʲpʰˤu#ɺˠ- ‘try’, pˤᵊsˤkʼˠ- ‘start’, tˤuʐʲgʱʷ- ‘want’, ʃʲhʈʲe#sˤqʼʲ- ‘can’, t͡sˤɔɡˠ- ‘finish’, ʐʲdˠu#ːsʷqʼʷ- ‘need’, ʃˠpʼˤi#ːgʱʲ- ‘decide’, hkʷɛ#ːʐʲ- ‘fail’, qʼʷosʷ- ‘hope’, ʂʲqˠɘ#t͡sˠ- ‘must’, ɖʱˠɘːzˠkˤ- ‘pretend’, ʒˠʈˠɔ#ːpʼʲ- ‘let’, ɮˠezˤhʈˠ- ‘force’, sˠhtˠoᵏǁˠ- ‘keep’, lˠasʲhpˤ- ‘cause’ and zʲgʱˠi#ːʂˠpʼʲ- ‘allow’

[ɾˠɔɾʲ kʰʲɔ꜖꜒bˤ]

ɾˠɔɾʲ
POS.active.PRES
kʰʲɔ꜖꜒bˤ
love

“I love you.”

(16)

Adverbs Minor Classes

Adpositions

There is one type of clitic in the adpositional phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing root.

[kˠa̰꜖nʲ fˠẽ̃ː꜒꜖tʼˤ ʂʲtˤoː̰꜖mˤ ɢʷɔ̃ːbʱˤẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ sʲuʁʲ]

kˠa̰꜖nʲ
in
fˠẽː꜒꜖tʼˤ
surface
ʂʲtˤoː̰꜖mˤ
table
ɢʷɔːbʱˤ-
cl.3
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
sʲuʁʲ
LOC

“on the table”

(17)

[p͡fʲa̰꜒tʼˠ ᵏǁʰˠẽ̃꜒꜖dʲ ʂˠpˠusˤɘ꜖ŋʲ ɢʷɔ̃ːbʱˤẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ ʂʲpʼˤɨ̃t͡sʷ]

p͡fʲa̰꜒tʼˠ
to
ᵏǁʰˠẽ꜒꜖dʲ
inside
ʂˠpˠusˤɘ꜖ŋʲ
box
ɢʷɔːbʱˤ-
cl.3
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ʂʲpʼˤɨ̃t͡sʷ
DAT

“into the box”

(18)

[sʷtʰʲɘ̃̃ʃˠʈʲã꜖꜒kˤ tˠɔḭ꜒ɢˤ sʲuʁʲ]

sʷtʰʲɘ̃ʃˠʈʲa꜖꜒kˤ
COMIT
tˠɔḭ꜒ɢˤ
1excl
sʲuʁʲ
LOC

“with me”

(19)

Syntax

Basic Clause Structure

Constituent Order

Constituent order describes the typical arrangement of the subject (S), verb (V) and object (O) in simple declarative clauses. It is a fundamental parameter in grammatical description and forms one of the clearest ways of characterising the overall structure of a language’s clause system.

Sahqag displays Verb–Object–Subject (VOS) as its primary word order. The verb is followed by the object, with the subject appearing clause-finally. Although relatively uncommon, VOS is well documented cross-linguistically.

The following examples illustrate the basic, unmarked, constituent order in Sahqag.

[kʼʷɜɹˤ ᵑǁʼˠuː꜖꜒tˤ kʼˠẽzˠtʼʷĩ̃ː̰꜒ɴˠ ɽʲɔ̃ʁˠẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ zʲqʲᵊzˤʡˠḭ̃̃꜒k͡xˤ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ]

kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
ᵑǁʼˠuː꜖꜒tˤ
kill
kʼˠezˠtʼʷĩː̰꜒ɴˠ
hunter
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
zʲqʲᵊzˤʡˠḭ̃꜒k͡xˤ
jaguar
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT

“The jaguar killed the hunter.”

(20)

[kʼʷɜɹˤ ħˠɛ꜒qʼˤ htʷadʷ t͡ʂˠuː꜒ɺˠ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ ʃʲpʼʲɨɡˠ ɣˠoː꜖d͡zˠ ʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ kʼˠẽzˠtʼʷĩ̃ː̰꜒ɴˠ ɽʲɔ̃ʁˠẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ ʜˠiʂʲtˠa꜒꜖qʼˠ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ]

kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
ħˠɛ꜒qʼˤ
eat
htʷadʷ
3.cl.1.POSS
t͡ʂˠuː꜒ɺˠ
dog
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ʃʲpʼʲɨɡˠ
3.cl.2.POSS
ɣˠoː꜖d͡zˠ
daughter
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
kʼˠezˠtʼʷĩː̰꜒ɴˠ
hunter
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ʜˠiʂʲtˠa꜒꜖qʼˠ
lion
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT

“The lion ate the hunter’s daughter’s dog.”

(21)

The language has a fixed constituent order, and major phrases normally appear in a predictable position in the clause. Movement for discourse reasons is highly restricted: topics and foci are expressed not by rearranging elements, but through dedicated constructions such as clefts, focus clauses or topic–comment frames. Constituents remain continuous, and both the relative order of phrases and the internal structure of each phrase are stable. As a result, significant deviations from the basic word order are ungrammatical, and discourse structure is managed through these specialised constructions rather than through word-order variation.

Noun Phrases

Structure and Order

The internal structure of noun phrases in Sahqag reveals typologically significant preferences in the ordering of nominal constituents. This includes the position of adjectives, numerals, and possessors relative to the noun, each of which can offer clues to the overall headedness of the language.

Possessive constructions are head-initial: the possessed noun precedes the possessor. For instance, Sahqag expresses “the child’s toy” with the equivalent of “toy child”. This structure is typologically rarer and often co-occurs with verb-initial syntax or with grammatical marking on the noun.

[ɥˤãɺˠ ᵏǁʼʲɜː꜖꜒sˠ ɽʲɔ̃ʁˠẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ ʃʲpʼʲɨɡˠ ʒʲhkʲɜ꜖꜒ʛˤ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ ʂˠpʰʲõp͡fˤ qʼʷɘ꜒ɽʲ ɽʲɔ̃ʁˠẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ]

ɥˤãɺˠ
3.cl.4.POSS
ᵏǁʼʲɜː꜖꜒sˠ
book
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ʃʲpʼʲɨɡˠ
3.cl.2.POSS
ʒʲhkʲɜ꜖꜒ʛˤ
friend
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ʂˠpʰʲõp͡fˤ
2.POSS
qʼʷɘ꜒ɽʲ
son
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the

“your son’s friend’s book”

(22)

Case Marking

Sahqag uses active case marking. Intransitive subjects are divided according to how they participate in the event. More agent-like subjects, such as the subject of ‘run’ or ‘shout’, pattern with transitive subjects and take the active or agentive case. Less agent-like subjects, such as the subject of ‘sleep’ or ‘be ill’, pattern with transitive objects and take the patientive or absolutive case. This system makes sense where the grammar treats control, volition or affectedness as more important than the simple distinction between subject and object.

[ɾˠɔɾʲ zˠɡˤɜ̃̃꜖꜒d͡ʐˠ ʃʲkʼʷo꜒rʲ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ]

ɾˠɔɾʲ
POS.active.PRES
zˠɡˤɜ̃꜖꜒d͡ʐˠ
sleep
ʃʲkʼʷo꜒rʲ
cat
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the

“The cat is sleeping.”

(23)

[ŋʲḭ꜖ɣʷ ʃʲkʼʷo꜒rʲ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ]

ŋʲḭ꜖ɣʷ
run
ʃʲkʼʷo꜒rʲ
cat
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT

“The cat is running.”

(24)

[ɬʲosˠʈʰʲau꜖꜒ʋˠ ʐˠɖʲɘ̃̃zˠɡʷõ꜒βˠ ɽʲɔ̃ʁˠẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ ʃʲkʼʷo꜒rʲ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ]

ɬʲosˠʈʰʲau꜖꜒ʋˠ
chase
ʐˠɖʲɘ̃zˠɡʷo꜒βˠ
mouse
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ʃʲkʼʷo꜒rʲ
cat
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT

“The cat is chasing the mouse.”

(25)

[kʼʷɜɹˤ sˠtˤa̰꜒rˠ ʐˠɖʲɘ̃̃zˠɡʷõ꜒βˠ ɽʲɔ̃ʁˠẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ ʃʲkʼʷo꜒rʲ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ]

kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
sˠtˤa̰꜒rˠ
catch
ʐˠɖʲɘ̃zˠɡʷo꜒βˠ
mouse
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ʃʲkʼʷo꜒rʲ
cat
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT

“The cat caught the mouse.”

(26)

Conjunctions

Here is an example of a conjunction.

[kʼʷɜɹˤ ᵑǁʼˠuː꜖꜒tˤ zʲqʲᵊzˤʡˠḭ̃̃꜒k͡xˤ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ sʲhkˠau꜒꜖ɠʷ ʂˠkʰˤɔgʱˠo꜒lʲ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ sʲhkˠau꜒꜖ɠʷ ʜˠiʂʲtˠa꜒꜖qʼˠ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ kʼˠẽzˠtʼʷĩ̃ː̰꜒ɴˠ ɽʲɔ̃ʁˠẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ]

kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
ᵑǁʼˠuː꜖꜒tˤ
kill
zʲqʲᵊzˤʡˠḭ̃꜒k͡xˤ
jaguar
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
sʲhkˠau꜒꜖ɠʷ
and
ʂˠkʰˤɔgʱˠo꜒lʲ
tiger
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
sʲhkˠau꜒꜖ɠʷ
and
ʜˠiʂʲtˠa꜒꜖qʼˠ
lion
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
kʼˠezˠtʼʷĩː̰꜒ɴˠ
hunter
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT

“The hunter killed the jaguars, the tigers and the lions.”

(27)

Modifiers and Determiners

The ordering of demonstratives, articles (if present), and other modifiers in Sahqag provides further insight into the structure of the noun phrase. These elements frequently exhibit fixed positions and may reveal whether the language favours head-initial or head-final patterns.

Complex Sentences

Relative Clauses

Sahqag forms relative clauses by placing the relative clause after the noun it modifies. The clause follows the internal word order of ordinary finite clauses. A dedicated relativising marker introduces the clause and identifies the relationship between the head noun and its role inside the relative clause.

To illustrate how relative clauses work, let us begin with a simple sentence:

[kʼʷɜɹˤ p͡fʲɔ̃̃ːʃˠkʰˠɨ̰̃꜖ʡʲ ʃʲkʼʷo꜒rʲ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ]

kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
p͡fʲɔ̃ːʃˠkʰˠɨ̰꜖ʡʲ
pat
ʃʲkʼʷo꜒rʲ
cat
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the

“I patted the cat.”

(28)

We can now add a relative clause modifying the noun:

[kʼʷɜɹˤ p͡fʲɔ̃̃ːʃˠkʰˠɨ̰̃꜖ʡʲ ʃʲkʼʷo꜒rʲ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ, ɣʲɘ꜖ɥʲ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ kʼʷɜɹˤ sˠtˤa̰꜒rˠ ʐˠɖʲɘ̃̃zˠɡʷõ꜒βˠ ɽʲɔ̃ʁˠẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ]

kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
p͡fʲɔ̃ːʃˠkʰˠɨ̰꜖ʡʲ
pat
ʃʲkʼʷo꜒rʲ
cat
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ɣʲɘ꜖ɥʲ
RELPRON
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT
kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
sˠtˤa̰꜒rˠ
catch
ʐˠɖʲɘ̃zˠɡʷo꜒βˠ
mouse
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse.”

(29)

Relative clauses may themselves contain other relative clauses:

[kʼʷɜɹˤ p͡fʲɔ̃̃ːʃˠkʰˠɨ̰̃꜖ʡʲ ʃʲkʼʷo꜒rʲ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ, ɣʲɘ꜖ɥʲ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ kʼʷɜɹˤ sˠtˤa̰꜒rˠ ʐˠɖʲɘ̃̃zˠɡʷõ꜒βˠ ɽʲɔ̃ʁˠẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ, ɣʲɘ꜖ɥʲ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ kʼʷɜɹˤ ħˠɛ꜒qʼˤ ʃˠkʼˤɜ̃̃ːʒʲgʱʲãũ꜖꜒ɳˠ ʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ]

kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
p͡fʲɔ̃ːʃˠkʰˠɨ̰꜖ʡʲ
pat
ʃʲkʼʷo꜒rʲ
cat
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ɣʲɘ꜖ɥʲ
RELPRON
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT
kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
sˠtˤa̰꜒rˠ
catch
ʐˠɖʲɘ̃zˠɡʷo꜒βˠ
mouse
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ɣʲɘ꜖ɥʲ
RELPRON
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT
kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
ħˠɛ꜒qʼˤ
eat
ʃˠkʼˤɜ̃ːʒʲgʱʲau꜖꜒ɳˠ
cheese
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese.”

(30)

Finally, here is an example containing several layers of embedding:

[kʼʷɜɹˤ p͡fʲɔ̃̃ːʃˠkʰˠɨ̰̃꜖ʡʲ ʃʲkʼʷo꜒rʲ qʼʲũːʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ, ɣʲɘ꜖ɥʲ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ kʼʷɜɹˤ sˠtˤa̰꜒rˠ ʐˠɖʲɘ̃̃zˠɡʷõ꜒βˠ ɽʲɔ̃ʁˠẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ, ɣʲɘ꜖ɥʲ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ kʼʷɜɹˤ ħˠɛ꜒qʼˤ ʃˠkʼˤɜ̃̃ːʒʲgʱʲãũ꜖꜒ɳˠ ʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ, ɣʲɘ꜖ɥʲ kʼʷɜɹˤ ŋ̥ˤɨː꜒꜖ɥˠ tˠɔḭ꜒ɢˤ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ]

kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
p͡fʲɔ̃ːʃˠkʰˠɨ̰꜖ʡʲ
pat
ʃʲkʼʷo꜒rʲ
cat
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ɣʲɘ꜖ɥʲ
RELPRON
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT
kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
sˠtˤa̰꜒rˠ
catch
ʐˠɖʲɘ̃zˠɡʷo꜒βˠ
mouse
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ɣʲɘ꜖ɥʲ
RELPRON
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT
kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
ħˠɛ꜒qʼˤ
eat
ʃˠkʼˤɜ̃ːʒʲgʱʲau꜖꜒ɳˠ
cheese
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ɣʲɘ꜖ɥʲ
RELPRON
kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
ŋ̥ˤɨː꜒꜖ɥˠ
buy
tˠɔḭ꜒ɢˤ
1excl
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese that I bought.”

(31)

Complementation Strategies

Sahqag marks complement clauses with subordinating verbal morphology. The embedded verb is fully finite and carries a subordinating suffix that identifies the clause as a complement. No structural changes occur within the clause apart from this verbal marking.

The following example illustrate how complement clauses function:

[kʼʷɜɹˤ ʁʲaʐʲtʼˠɘ̰꜖ɗʷ ʈʰˠaːkʼʷɔ̰꜖vʲ ɽʲɔ̃ʁˠẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ ʂʲpʼˤɨ̃t͡sʷ kʼʷɜɹˤ zʷʈˠaɥˠ ɰʲɘ̃ːrˠ sˤqʲɛ̰꜒rʲ zˤdʱʷoʒˠdˤɛː꜖꜒bʲ qʼʲuːᵏǀˤtʼʲa꜒rˠ ʃˠkʲɔ̃̃ː꜒꜖sʷ ʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ ʂʲpʼˤɨ̃t͡sʷ zˠhpˤɔ̰꜒mˤ ɽʲɔ̃ʁˠẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ]

kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
ʁʲaʐʲtʼˠɘ̰꜖ɗʷ
surprise
ʈʰˠaːkʼʷɔ̰꜖vʲ
teacher
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ʂʲpʼˤɨ̃t͡sʷ
DAT
kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
zʷʈˠaɥˠ
3.cl.1.3.cl.4.3.cl.2
ɰʲɘ̃ːrˠ
COMP
sˤqʲɛ̰꜒rʲ
give
zˤdʱʷoʒˠdˤɛː꜖꜒bʲ
apple
qʼʲuːᵏǀˤ-
cl.4
tʼʲa꜒rˠ
a
ʃˠkʲɔ̃ː꜒꜖sʷ
girl
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ʂʲpʼˤɨ̃t͡sʷ
DAT
zˠhpˤɔ̰꜒mˤ
boy
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT

“It surprised the teacher that the boy had given the girl an apple.”

(32)

Quotes

Sahqag employs a quotative particle to mark direct and indirect speech. The quotative follows the reported phrase and identifies the preceding expression as quoted or reported. The same construction is also used to express reported thoughts.

Here is an example of how quotations are expressed:

[kʼʷɜɹˤ ʐʲtʰʷɨʛʲ ʃʲkʷɜ̰̃̃꜒ʋʲ ɾˠɔɾʲ ɰʲɘ̃ːrˠ kʰʲɔ꜖꜒bˤ zˤi꜖꜒ʜʲ tˠɔḭ꜒ɢˤ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ ʃˠkʲɔ̃̃ː꜒꜖sʷ ʃʲkʰʲẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ ʂʲpʼˤɨ̃t͡sʷ zˠhpˤɔ̰꜒mˤ ɽʲɔ̃ʁˠẽ̃꜖꜒r̥ˤ sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ]

kʼʷɜɹˤ
POS.active.PAST
ʐʲtʰʷɨʛʲ
3.cl.1.2.3.cl.2
ʃʲkʷɜ̰̃꜒ʋʲ
tell
ɾˠɔɾʲ
POS.active.PRES
ɰʲɘ̃ːrˠ
COMP
kʰʲɔ꜖꜒bˤ
love
zˤi꜖꜒ʜʲ
2
tˠɔḭ꜒ɢˤ
1excl
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT
ʃˠkʲɔ̃ː꜒꜖sʷ
girl
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
ʂʲpʼˤɨ̃t͡sʷ
DAT
zˠhpˤɔ̰꜒mˤ
boy
ɽʲɔʁˠ-
cl.2
ʃʲkʰʲẽ꜖꜒r̥ˤ
the
sʲɛ̃ːɻˠ
ACT

“The boy told the girl that he loved her.”

(33)

How to cite this grammar

Language Creator. 2026. A Grammar of Sahqag. Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 29 July 2026. https://languagecreator.org/grammar/1768W

In BibTeX format:

@misc{LC-1768W,
  year         = 2026,
  author       = {{Language Creator}},
  title        = {A Grammar of {Sahqag}},
  howpublished = {\url{https://languagecreator.org/grammar/1768W}},
  note         = {Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.92, on 29 July 2026}
}

Supplementary Materials

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