The Language Creator
– from linguistic questionnaire to grammar, lexicon and texts.

A Grammar of Ushamu

Introduction

Scope and Purpose

This grammar provides a systematic description of the Ushamu language (the 89th one produced by the Language Creator), outlining its sound system, word formation and syntactic structure, with the aim of presenting a coherent account of the language as an integrated whole. Attention has been paid to both regular patterns and minor irregularities, as these together define the internal balance of the language.

The grammar is accompanied by a bilingual dictionary and a collection of illustrative texts, offering material for further study and comparison. The examples have been selected to demonstrate typical constructions and to give a sense of the language in extended use. The description is intended as a reference work for linguists and language enthusiasts alike, and as a foundation for any future research, teaching or creative adaptation of Ushamu.

Typological Profile

It has the highly uncommon basic word order OVS and ergative case marking, i.e., the object of a transitive verb is marked the same as the subject of an intransitive one,.

Phonology

Phoneme Inventory

Consonants

Ushamu has a moderately large consonant inventory, with 31 phonemes.

It has a maximally contrastive voicing system, a substantial inventory of palatal or palatalised consonants and a notably rich set of sibilant contrasts.

The table below presents the full inventory of consonant phonemes in Ushamu. The chart lists all places and manners of articulation attested in the language.

labialdentalalveolarpostalveolaralveolo-palatallateralpalatalvelarglottal
stopp b d t c ɟ k ɡ
nasalm n ɲ ŋ
trill/tap/flapr
fricativef θ s z ʃ ʒ x ɣ h
approximantw l j
affricated͡z t͡s d͡ʒ t͡ʃ t͡ɕ

Vowels

Ushamu has 7 vowel qualities, forming a relatively large inventory. The system distinguishes several vowel categories, as indicated in the chart, offering a wide range of vocalic contrasts.

It has a moderately reduced system of unstressed vowels.

The table below presents the full inventory of vowel phonemes in Ushamu. The system comprises the distinct vowel qualities listed in the chart.

frontcentralback
closei u
mide o
opena

Stress and Tones

Ushamu has phonemic stress but no lexical tone. Stress consistently falls on the first vowel of the root, and no contrastive tonal distinctions are made.

Phonological Processes

Vowel Harmony

Vowel harmony does not exist in this language.

Writing System

Introduction

Ushamu is normally written using the Latin alphabet, whose familiarity makes it straightforward for most readers. For clarity and precision, phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are also provided throughout this grammar.

Orthography

Here are the various components of the orthography:

Simple letters

a /a/b /b/d /d/e /e/
f /f/g /ɡ/h /h/i /i/
j /d͡ʒ/k /k/l /l/m /m/
n /n/o /o/p /p/r /r/
s /s/t /t/u /u/w /w/
y /j/z /z/ñ /ɲ/ğ /ɣ/
ɟ /ɟ/

Multi-letter combinations such as digraphs

ai /ai/au /au/ch /t͡ʃ/
d͡z /d͡z/kh /x/ng /ŋ/
sh /ʃ/th /θ/tj /c/
ty /t͡ɕ/tz /t͡s/zh /ʒ/

Word Classes and Morphology

Number and Gender

Number

Ushamu does not have grammatical number.

Gender

Ushamu has the following genders:

Gender fem – for instance: aikitu ‘lake’, alahi ‘fish’, amaji ‘mother’, atzisa ‘chair’, auwiga ‘top’, auñaja ‘sea’, azhatja ‘star’, elaki ‘brick’, ezagu ‘inside’, id͡zisi ‘penis’, ikalu ‘fingernail’, ishiju ‘south’, iwizhi ‘daughter’, iñalu ‘girl’, iñufa ‘plain’, ochila ‘people’, unaba ‘name’, unathi ‘wife’, uñada ‘moon’, uɟalu ‘table’.

Gender masc – for instance: adani ‘earth’, aduru ‘bone’, ahaña ‘night’, aizhitza ‘land’, ajaba ‘God’, apakhi ‘year’, atjisha ‘lamb’, auchuña ‘cheese’, ayañi ‘blood’, engimi ‘dust’, eniwi ‘friend’, epuzi ‘neighbour’, ifatzu ‘slime’, ikifi ‘son’, obiɟu ‘fat’, okhatha ‘machine’, omizi ‘eye’, ufucha ‘knife’, utyatya ‘umbrella’, uziza ‘faeces’.

Gender neut – for instance: ahawi ‘embrace’, aimabi ‘nose’, aimuzhu ‘wild boar’, aiñad͡za ‘book’, atjanga ‘mammal’, aungibi ‘breath’, auğata ‘worm’, auğuhi ‘rain’, awiba ‘colour’, ekhuki ‘sound’, etzingi ‘belly’, eyazu ‘feather’, ichithu ‘liver’, iridi ‘horn’, iɟazi ‘ear’, obalu ‘knee’, ugatha ‘root’, ujuna ‘fight’, uyanga ‘stick’, uɟikha ‘lion’.

The Nominal Phrase

Nominal phrases in Ushamu can be exemplified by the following example:

Tu pufu khauwa kuɟizhi yai ɟechu si pa lauzi sunucha Bo lauthi kufucha.

[tu ˈpufu ˈxauwa ˈkuɟiʒi ˈjai ˈɟet͡ʃu si pa ˈlauzi ˈsunut͡ʃa ˈbo ˈlauθi ˈkufut͡ʃa]

tu
plur ˈpu
yon -fu
neut ˈxauwa
blind k-
ABS ˈuɟiʒi
mouse ˈjai
three ˈɟet͡ʃ
catch -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative ˈlau
the -zi
fem s-
ERG ˈunut͡ʃa
woman ˈbo
COMIT ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈufut͡ʃa
knife

“The woman with the knife caught those three blind mice.”

 (1)

In the following, we shall look at the various components in more details.

There is one type of clitic in the nominal phrase, namely a proclitic (placed initially), expressing number. a clitic expressing number, comprising tu /tu/ ‘plur’.

The morphology of the elements of the nominal phrase, i.e., nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns, is described below, as is the way that possession is expressed in Ushamu.

The Noun

The noun in Ushamu consists of an obligatory prefix expressing case, comprising k- /k-/ ‘ABS’, s- /s-/ ‘ERG’, l- /l-/ ‘DAT’, f- /f-/ ‘INS’, tz- /t͡s-/ ‘VOC’, d͡z- /d͡z-/ ‘ALL’, sh- /ʃ-/ ‘LOC’, ch- /t͡ʃ-/ ‘ABL’ and w- /w-/ ‘PART’ followed by the root.

The noun displays the following derivational morphology: six suffixes, namely -yi /-ji/ ‘little’, -gi /-ɡi/ ‘big’, -ğa /-ɣa/ ‘old’, -pi /-pi/ ‘new’, -zhu /-ʒu/ ‘good’ and -sha /-ʃa/ ‘bad’, and five circumfixes, namely b-tj /b-c/ ‘have’, th-g /θ-ɡ/ ‘use’, r-g /r-ɡ/ ‘see’, ty-l /t͡ɕ-l/ ‘make’ and th-kh /θ-x/ ‘break’

The Adjective

The adjective in Ushamu stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Numerals

The numeral in Ushamu stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Determiners

In Ushamu, the determiner has the following structure: the root followed by an obligatory suffix expressing gender, comprising -thi /-θi/ ‘masc’, -zi /-zi/ ‘fem’ and -fu /-fu/ ‘neut’.

Pronouns

The pronoun in Ushamu stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.

Lauthi katzasa hud͡zu si pa ma tyiru yod͡za pa.

[ˈlauθi ˈkat͡sasa ˈhud͡zu si pa ˈma ˈt͡ɕiru ˈjod͡za pa]

ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈat͡sasa
tiger ˈhud͡z
kill -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative ˈma
because ˈt͡ɕir
be -u
not.Q ˈjod͡za
happy pa
indicative

“Because the two of us [not including the listener] killed the tiger, we [including the listener] are all now happy.”

 (2)

Here is an example where neither of the pronouns are stressed:

Tjo hudu pa.

[ˈco ˈhudu pa]

ˈco
3.sing.fem ˈhud
love -u
not.Q pa
indicative

“He (the boy) loves her (the girl).”

 (3)

But here, the word corresponding to he is stressed:

Tjo hudu pa pai.

[ˈco ˈhudu pa ˈpai]

ˈco
3.sing.fem ˈhud
love -u
not.Q pa
indicative ˈpai
3.sing.masc

“He loves her.”

 (4)

And here, it is the one translated as her that is stressed:

Tjo hudu pa.

[ˈco ˈhudu pa]

ˈco
3.sing.fem ˈhud
love -u
not.Q pa
indicative

“He loves her.”

 (5)

Proper Nouns

Lauzi kAiğitha fayu pa lauthi sUjud͡zu.

[ˈlauzi ˈkaiɣiθa ˈfaju pa ˈlauθi ˈsud͡ʒud͡zu]

ˈlau
the -zi
fem k-
ABS ˈaiɣiθa
Aighitha ˈfaj
hate -u
not.Q pa
indicative ˈlau
the -θi
masc s-
ERG ˈud͡ʒud͡zu
Ujudzu

“Ujudzu hates Aighitha.”

 (6)

Possession

lauthi kaizhipu lauthi kinad͡zi

[ˈlauθi ˈkaiʒipu ˈlauθi ˈkinad͡zi]

ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈaiʒipu
boy ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈinad͡zi
apple

“the boy’s apple”

 (7)
pai lauthi kinad͡zi

[ˈpai ˈlauθi ˈkinad͡zi]

ˈpai
3.sing.masc ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈinad͡zi
apple

“his (the boy’s) apple”

 (8)
po lauthi kinad͡zi

[ˈpo ˈlauθi ˈkinad͡zi]

ˈpo
1excl.sing ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈinad͡zi
apple

“my apple”

 (9)
Fi lauthi kepuzi lauthi kikifi pomu si pa lauthi kenitza lauzi siwizhi.

[ˈfi ˈlauθi ˈkepuzi ˈlauθi ˈkikifi ˈpomu si pa ˈlauθi ˈkenit͡sa ˈlauzi ˈsiwiʒi]

ˈfi
2.sing ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈepuzi
neighbour ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈikifi
son ˈpom
kiss -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈenit͡sa
hunter ˈlau
the -zi
fem s-
ERG ˈiwiʒi
daughter

“The hunter’s daughter kissed your neighbour’s son.”

 (10)

Derivation

katjisha

[ˈkaciʃa]

k-
ABS ˈaciʃa
lamb

“a lamb”

 (11)
katjishayi

[ˈkaciʃaji]

k-
ABS ˈaciʃa
lamb -ji
little

“a little lamb”

 (12)
Batjishayitju si pa.

[ˈbaciʃajicu si pa]

b-
have₁ ˈaciʃa
lamb -ji
little -c
have₂ -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative

“She had a little lamb.”

 (13)

This doesn’t affect all adjectives and verbs. Compare, for instance the previous example with this one, where black and love do not undergo affixation:

Shochi katjisha hudu si pa.

[ˈʃot͡ʃi ˈkaciʃa ˈhudu si pa]

ˈʃot͡ʃi
black k-
ABS ˈaciʃa
lamb ˈhud
love -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative

“She loved a black lamb.”

 (14)

Compounding

Verbs

Inflectional Categories

The verbal phrase clitics in Ushamu fall into two categories, proclitics and enclitics: first, a clitic expressing negation, comprising tju /cu/ ‘NEG’; second, a clitic expressing ta, comprising si /si/ ‘PAST’; third, a clitic expressing mode, comprising pa /pa/ ‘indicative’, ri /ri/ ‘conditional’ and ti /ti/ ‘optative’; and finally, fourth, a clitic expressing voice, comprising tu /tu/ ‘passive’.

In addition, the verb is structured like this: the root followed by an obligatory suffix expressing question, comprising -u /-u/ ‘Q’ and -u /-u/ ‘not.Q’.

The verb displays the following derivational morphology: five suffixes, namely -in /-in/ ‘begin’, -iy /-ij/ ‘stop’, -uty /-ut͡ɕ/ ‘continue’, -il /-il/ ‘try’ and -uzh /-uʒ/ ‘start’

Fi hudu pa.

[ˈfi ˈhudu pa]

ˈfi
2.sing ˈhud
love -u
not.Q pa
indicative

“I love you.”

 (15)

Adverbs Minor Classes

Adpositions

There is one type of clitic in the adpositional phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing root.

pi lauzi kuɟalu kufula

[ˈpi ˈlauzi ˈkuɟalu ˈkufula]

ˈpi
in ˈlau
the -zi
fem k-
ABS ˈuɟalu
table k-
ABS ˈufula
surface

“on the table”

 (16)
sho lauzi karufu kezagu

[ˈʃo ˈlauzi ˈkarufu ˈkezaɡu]

ˈʃo
to ˈlau
the -zi
fem k-
ABS ˈarufu
box k-
ABS ˈezaɡu
inside

“into the box”

 (17)
Bo po

[ˈbo ˈpo]

ˈbo
COMIT ˈpo
1excl.sing

“with me”

 (18)

Syntax

Basic Clause Structure

Constituent Order

Constituent order describes the typical arrangement of the subject (S), verb (V) and object (O) in simple declarative clauses. It is a fundamental parameter in grammatical description and forms one of the clearest ways of characterising the overall structure of a language’s clause system.

Ushamu has Object–Verb–Subject (OVS) as its basic constituent order. Clauses begin with the object, followed by the verb, with the subject in final position. This is a rare but attested configuration in the world’s languages.

The following examples illustrate the basic, unmarked, constituent order in Ushamu.

Lauthi kenitza hud͡zu si pa laufu sezhiza.

[ˈlauθi ˈkenit͡sa ˈhud͡zu si pa ˈlaufu ˈseʒiza]

ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈenit͡sa
hunter ˈhud͡z
kill -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative ˈlau
the -fu
neut s-
ERG ˈeʒiza
jaguar

“The jaguar killed the hunter.”

 (19)
Lauthi kenitza lauzi kiwizhi laufu kutzizha zugu si pa laufu suɟikha.

[ˈlauθi ˈkenit͡sa ˈlauzi ˈkiwiʒi ˈlaufu ˈkut͡siʒa ˈzuɡu si pa ˈlaufu ˈsuɟixa]

ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈenit͡sa
hunter ˈlau
the -zi
fem k-
ABS ˈiwiʒi
daughter ˈlau
the -fu
neut k-
ABS ˈut͡siʒa
dog ˈzuɡ
eat -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative ˈlau
the -fu
neut s-
ERG ˈuɟixa
lion

“The lion ate the hunter’s daughter’s dog.”

 (20)

The language has a fixed constituent order, and major phrases normally appear in a predictable position in the clause. Movement for discourse reasons is highly restricted: topics and foci are expressed not by rearranging elements, but through dedicated constructions such as clefts, focus clauses or topic–comment frames. Constituents remain continuous, and both the relative order of phrases and the internal structure of each phrase are stable. As a result, significant deviations from the basic word order are ungrammatical, and discourse structure is managed through these specialised constructions rather than through word-order variation.

Noun Phrases

Structure and Order

The internal structure of noun phrases in Ushamu reveals typologically significant preferences in the ordering of nominal constituents. This includes the position of adjectives, numerals, and possessors relative to the noun, each of which can offer clues to the overall headedness of the language.

Possessive constructions are head-final: the possessor precedes the possessed noun. For example, Ushamu expresses “the child’s toy” with the equivalent of “child toy”. This ordering is found in many SOV and postpositional languages and aligns with a broader tendency towards modifier-first structures.

fi lauthi kikifi lauthi keniwi laufu kaiñad͡za

[ˈfi ˈlauθi ˈkikifi ˈlauθi ˈkeniwi ˈlaufu ˈkaiɲad͡za]

ˈfi
2.sing ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈikifi
son ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈeniwi
friend ˈlau
the -fu
neut k-
ABS ˈaiɲad͡za
book

“your son’s friend’s book”

 (21)

Conjunctions

Here is an example of a conjunction.

Tu laufu kezhiza tu tu lauthi katzasa tu tu laufu kuɟikha hud͡zu si pa lauthi senitza.

[tu ˈlaufu ˈkeʒiza ˈtu tu ˈlauθi ˈkat͡sasa ˈtu tu ˈlaufu ˈkuɟixa ˈhud͡zu si pa ˈlauθi ˈsenit͡sa]

tu
plur ˈlau
the -fu
neut k-
ABS ˈeʒiza
jaguar ˈtu
and tu
plur ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈat͡sasa
tiger ˈtu
and tu
plur ˈlau
the -fu
neut k-
ABS ˈuɟixa
lion ˈhud͡z
kill -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative ˈlau
the -θi
masc s-
ERG ˈenit͡sa
hunter

“The hunter killed the jaguars, the tigers and the lions.”

 (22)

Modifiers and Determiners

The ordering of demonstratives, articles (if present), and other modifiers in Ushamu provides further insight into the structure of the noun phrase. These elements frequently exhibit fixed positions and may reveal whether the language favours head-initial or head-final patterns.

Complex Sentences

Relative Clauses

Ushamu forms relative clauses by placing them before the noun they modify. The modifier takes the form of a finite clause that precedes the head noun without any relative pronoun. The clause shows ordinary clausal structure, with the role of the head noun recoverable from the syntactic position inside the clause.

To illustrate how relative clauses work, let us begin with a simple sentence:

Lauthi kolad͡zi ğauğu si pa.

[ˈlauθi ˈkolad͡zi ˈɣauɣu si pa]

ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈolad͡zi
cat ˈɣauɣ
pat -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative

“I patted the cat.”

 (23)

We can now add a relative clause modifying the noun:

Laufu kuɟizhi ɟechu si pa lauthi kolad͡zi ğauğu si pa.

[ˈlaufu ˈkuɟiʒi ˈɟet͡ʃu si pa ˈlauθi ˈkolad͡zi ˈɣauɣu si pa]

ˈlau
the -fu
neut k-
ABS ˈuɟiʒi
mouse ˈɟet͡ʃ
catch -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈolad͡zi
cat ˈɣauɣ
pat -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse.”

 (24)

Relative clauses may themselves contain other relative clauses:

Lauthi kauchuña zugu si pa laufu kuɟizhi ɟechu si pa lauthi kolad͡zi ğauğu si pa.

[ˈlauθi ˈkaut͡ʃuɲa ˈzuɡu si pa ˈlaufu ˈkuɟiʒi ˈɟet͡ʃu si pa ˈlauθi ˈkolad͡zi ˈɣauɣu si pa]

ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈaut͡ʃuɲa
cheese ˈzuɡ
eat -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative ˈlau
the -fu
neut k-
ABS ˈuɟiʒi
mouse ˈɟet͡ʃ
catch -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈolad͡zi
cat ˈɣauɣ
pat -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese.”

 (25)

Finally, here is an example containing several layers of embedding:

Dipu si pa po lauthi kauchuña zugu si pa laufu kuɟizhi ɟechu si pa lauthi kolad͡zi ğauğu si pa.

[ˈdipu si pa ˈpo ˈlauθi ˈkaut͡ʃuɲa ˈzuɡu si pa ˈlaufu ˈkuɟiʒi ˈɟet͡ʃu si pa ˈlauθi ˈkolad͡zi ˈɣauɣu si pa]

ˈdip
buy -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative ˈpo
1excl.sing ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈaut͡ʃuɲa
cheese ˈzuɡ
eat -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative ˈlau
the -fu
neut k-
ABS ˈuɟiʒi
mouse ˈɟet͡ʃ
catch -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative ˈlau
the -θi
masc k-
ABS ˈolad͡zi
cat ˈɣauɣ
pat -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative

“I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese that I bought.”

 (26)

Complementation Strategies

Ushamu marks complement clauses with subordinating verbal morphology. The embedded verb is fully finite and carries a subordinating suffix that identifies the clause as a complement. No structural changes occur within the clause apart from this verbal marking.

The following example illustrate how complement clauses function:

Lauzi laiɟaya jalu si pa kinad͡zi lauzi liñalu tzeyu si pa lauthi saizhipu.

[ˈlauzi ˈlaiɟaja ˈd͡ʒalu si pa ˈkinad͡zi ˈlauzi ˈliɲalu ˈt͡seju si pa ˈlauθi ˈsaiʒipu]

ˈlau
the -zi
fem l-
DAT ˈaiɟaja
teacher ˈd͡ʒal
surprise -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative k-
ABS ˈinad͡zi
apple ˈlau
the -zi
fem l-
DAT ˈiɲalu
girl ˈt͡sej
give -u
not.Q si
PAST pa
indicative ˈlau
the -θi
masc s-
ERG ˈaiʒipu
boy

“It surprised the teacher that the boy had given the girl an apple.”

 (27)

Quotes

Here is an example of how quotations are expressed:

Miscellaneous

Supplementary Materials

A collection of illustrative texts and a bilingual dictionary (English–Ushamu / Ushamu–English) accompany this grammar. The complete work – comprising the grammar, dictionary and texts – may also be downloaded in ODT or DOCX format.

Readers are encouraged to share observations or corrections via the feedback form. The present page may be accessed directly at:

https://languagecreator.org/grammar/2ZZLW

Behind the scenes, the Language Creator stores the generated language in a JSON-based format known as ELD. The corresponding ELD file may be downloaded, edited as required, and reuploaded in order to regenerate the grammar, dictionary and texts.

How to cite this grammar:

Language Creator. 2026. A Grammar of Ushamu. Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.90, on 26 April 2026. https://languagecreator.org/grammar/2ZZLW

In BibTeX format:

@misc{LC-2ZZLW,
  year         = 2026,
  author       = {{Language Creator}},
  title        = {A Grammar of {Ushamu}},
  howpublished = {\url{https://languagecreator.org/grammar/2ZZLW}},
  note         = {Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.90, on 26 April 2026}
}

Execution time: 0.08 seconds.