A Grammar of Naget
Introduction
Scope and Purpose
This grammar provides a systematic description of the Naget language (the 2020th one produced by the Language Creator), outlining its sound system, word formation and syntactic structure, with the aim of presenting a coherent account of the language as an integrated whole. Attention has been paid to both regular patterns and minor irregularities, as these together define the internal balance of the language.
The grammar is accompanied by a bilingual dictionary and a collection of illustrative texts, offering material for further study and comparison. The examples have been selected to demonstrate typical constructions and to give a sense of the language in extended use. The description is intended as a reference work for linguists and language enthusiasts alike, and as a foundation for any future research, teaching or creative adaptation of Naget.
Typological Profile
It has has no interesting typological features.Phonology
Phoneme Inventory
Consonants
Naget has a moderately large consonant inventory, with 28 phonemes.
It has a maximally contrastive voicing system, a notably rich set of sibilant contrasts, a modest (but clearly contrastive) set of labialised consonants and no glottal consonants at all.The table below presents the full inventory of consonant phonemes in Naget. The chart lists all places and manners of articulation attested in the language.
| labial | alveolar | postalveolar | lateral | palatal | velar | lab. velar | uvular | lab. uvular | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| stop | p b | d t | k ɡ | kʷ ɡʷ | q | qʷ | |||
| nasal | m | n | ŋ | ŋʷ | |||||
| trill/tap/flap | r | ||||||||
| fricative | f | s z | ʃ ʒ | ||||||
| approximant | w | l | j | ||||||
| affricate | d͡z t͡s | d͡ʒ t͡ʃ |
Vowels
Naget has 12 vowel qualities, forming a relatively large inventory. The system distinguishes several vowel categories, as indicated in the chart, offering a wide range of vocalic contrasts.
It has a maximally “square” vowel system balancing heights across backness.The table below presents the full inventory of vowel phonemes in Naget. The system comprises the distinct vowel qualities listed in the chart.
| front | back | |
|---|---|---|
| close | i | u |
| mid | e | o |
| open | æ | ɑ |
Stress and Tones
Naget has neither phonemic stress nor lexical tone. Prosodic prominence and pitch variation are determined by pragmatic and discourse factors rather than by lexical contrasts.
Phonological Processes
Vowel Harmony
Vowel harmony does not exist in this language.
Writing System
Introduction
Naget is normally written using the Cyrillic alphabet, a script with a long and varied history across Eastern Europe and northern Asia. In this grammar, phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are also used to give an unambiguous representation of sound.
The conventions adopted here follow standard Cyrillic practice for the language where that exists; where they do not, the IPA transcription should be taken as authoritative.
Orthography
Here are the various components of the orthography:
Simple letters
| а /ɑ/ | а’ /ɑ̰/ | б /b/ | в /w/ |
| г /ɡ/ | д /d/ | е /e/ | е’ /ḛ/ |
| ж /ʒ/ | з /z/ | и /i/ | и’ /ḭ/ |
| к /k/ | л /l/ | м /m/ | н /n/ |
| о /o/ | о’ /o̰/ | п /p/ | р /r/ |
| с /s/ | т /t/ | у /u/ | у’ /ṵ/ |
| ф /f/ | ц /t͡s/ | ч /t͡ʃ/ | ш /ʃ/ |
| ѕ /d͡z/ | ј /j/ | џ /d͡ʒ/ | ӈ /ŋ/ |
| ә /æ/ | ә’ /æ̰/ | ԟ /q/ |
Multi-letter combinations such as digraphs
| аа /ɑː/ | гв /ɡʷ/ | ее /eː/ |
| ии /iː/ | кв /kʷ/ | оо /oː/ |
| уу /uː/ | ӈв /ŋʷ/ | әә /æː/ |
| ԟв /qʷ/ |
Word Classes and Morphology
Number and Gender
Number
Naget distinguishes singular and plural.
Gender
Naget has the following genders:
Gender masc – for instance: буц ‘surface’, гәәс ‘moon’, ләәсԟо’б ‘ice’, мочог ‘bosom’, мо’з ‘north’, муб ‘father’, нуквеч ‘sand’, пуциг ‘snow’, скво’скув ‘neck’, сор ‘bone’, сԟаалас ‘embrace’, сԟур ‘manner’, тииџед ‘bank’, токвеԟ ‘religion’, цааш ‘name’, цор ‘head’, ѕуус ‘sky’, ӈваԟиц ‘salt’, ԟвәл ‘wind’, ԟе’ԟуш ‘lake’.
Gender fem – for instance: биип ‘dog’, бәән ‘child’, виг ‘skin’, гебәс ‘medicine’, зифи’ч ‘lion’, зуԟво’т ‘louse’, моојус ‘worm’, пәтол ‘wild boar’, ске’ѕ ‘time’, сԟвииӈвој ‘mammal’, сԟумуч ‘lamb’, фов ‘south’, фәб ‘water’, циицаз ‘restaurant’, шеезеб ‘breath’, ӈвееч ‘wife’, ӈи’т ‘girl’, ԟвеез ‘human being’, ԟвиил ‘night’, ԟвонән ‘snake’.
Gender neut – for instance: гиитәр ‘teacher’, дашат ‘root’, луԟвеб ‘cheese’, ләбәп ‘belly’, неег ‘eye’, нисоц ‘bark’, нишеӈ ‘net’, си’мә’р ‘horn’, скеп ‘back’, скесԟвов ‘grass’, сус ‘people’, тод ‘ear’, фобуӈ ‘guts’, фоцуж ‘seed’, чиг ‘top’, шии ‘nose’, шууд ‘meat’, ѕиидо’п ‘smoke’, џугә’м ‘liver’, ӈиицир ‘umbrella’.
The Nominal Phrase
Nominal phrases in Naget can be exemplified by the following example:
Дә’кууч не’гик дә’туӈ фо’ԟеечиф ниԟ чуп квар ԟек ѕе’тиижаџ. [dæ̰kuːt͡ʃ nḛɡik dæ̰tuŋ fo̰qeːt͡ʃif niq t͡ʃup kʷɑr qek d͡zḛtiːʒɑd͡ʒ] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing kuːt͡ʃ woman nḛɡik COMIT l- LOC tæ̰k- sing ruŋ knife fo̰d- 3.sing.fem.indicative.PAST qeː catch -qʷ 3.plur.fem.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS qʷ- fem ʃup yon kʷɑr three qek blind d͡ʒ- ACC d͡zḛkʷ- plur diːʒɑd͡ʒ mouse “The woman with the knife caught those three blind mice.” | (1) |
In the following, we shall look at the various components in more details.
There are no clitics in the nominal phrase.The Noun
The noun in Naget consists of first, an obligatory prefix expressing case, comprising ј- /j-/ ‘NOM’, џ- /d͡ʒ-/ ‘ACC’, ф- /f-/ ‘GEN’, м- /m-/ ‘DAT’, к- /k-/ ‘INS’, н- /n-/ ‘VOC’, р- /r-/ ‘ALL’, л- /l-/ ‘LOC’, кв- /kʷ-/ ‘ABL’ and п- /p-/ ‘PART’; second, an obligatory prefix expressing number, comprising тә’к- /tæ̰k-/ ‘sing’ and ѕе’кв- /d͡zḛkʷ-/ ‘plur’; and finally, third, the root.
The noun displays the following derivational morphology: two suffixes, namely -дар /-dɑr/ ‘little’ and -је’н /-jḛn/ ‘big’
The Adjective
The adjective in Naget stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.
Numerals
The numeral in Naget stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.
Determiners
In Naget, the determiner has the following structure: an obligatory prefix expressing gender, comprising кв- /kʷ-/ ‘masc’, ԟв- /qʷ-/ ‘fem’ and л- /l-/ ‘neut’ followed by the root.
Pronouns
The pronoun in Naget has the following structure: the root followed by an obligatory suffix expressing number, comprising -ец /-et͡s/ ‘sing’ and -ооџ /-oːd͡ʒ/ ‘plur’.
In Naget, subject pronouns (but not object pronouns ones) are dropped unless they are stressed. Here is an example where neither of the pronouns are stressed:
Жице’чиф ниԟ мец. [ʒit͡sḛt͡ʃif niq met͡s] ʒit͡s- 3.sing.masc.indicative.PRES sḛ love -t 3.sing.fem.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS meː 3.sing.fem -et͡s sing “He (the boy) loves her (the girl).” | (2) |
But here, the word corresponding to he (i.e., the subject) is stressed:
Ѕец жице’чиф ниԟ мец. [d͡zet͡s ʒit͡sḛt͡ʃif niq met͡s] d͡zɑː 3.sing.masc -et͡s sing ʒit͡s- 3.sing.masc.indicative.PRES sḛ love -t 3.sing.fem.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS meː 3.sing.fem -et͡s sing “He loves her.” | (3) |
Proper Nouns
Дә’Пушил жичуԟво’чиф ниԟ ѕә’Коџәб. [dæ̰puʃil ʒit͡ʃuqʷo̰t͡ʃif niq d͡zæ̰kod͡ʒæb] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing buʃil Bushil ʒit͡s- 3.sing.masc.indicative.PRES ʃuqʷo̰ hate -t 3.sing.fem.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS d͡ʒ- ACC tæ̰k- sing ɡod͡ʒæb Gojab “Bushil hates Gojab.” | (4) |
Possession
дә’ԟвоцәџ сә’ӈир [dæ̰qʷot͡sæd͡ʒ sæ̰ŋir] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing qʷot͡sæd͡ʒ apple f- GEN tæ̰k- sing mir boy “the boy’s apple” | (5) |
дә’ԟвоцәџ ѕец [dæ̰qʷot͡sæd͡ʒ d͡zet͡s] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing qʷot͡sæd͡ʒ apple d͡zɑː 3.sing.masc -et͡s sing “his (the boy’s) apple” | (6) |
дә’ԟвоцәџ тец [dæ̰qʷot͡sæd͡ʒ tet͡s] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing qʷot͡sæd͡ʒ apple te 1excl.sing -et͡s sing “my apple” | (7) |
Дә’ԟеж сә’квапон фо’џозәжиф ниԟ ѕә’чән сә’тә’тер пец. [dæ̰qeʒ sæ̰kʷɑpon fo̰d͡ʒozæʒif niq d͡zæ̰t͡ʃæn sæ̰tæ̰ter pet͡s] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing qeʒ daughter f- GEN tæ̰k- sing wɑpon hunter fo̰d- 3.sing.fem.indicative.PAST d͡ʒozæ kiss -r 3.sing.masc.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS d͡ʒ- ACC tæ̰k- sing t͡ʃæn son f- GEN tæ̰k- sing dæ̰ter neighbour po 2.sing -et͡s sing “The hunter’s daughter kissed your neighbour’s son.” | (8) |
Derivation
Naget has a few derivational processes. To illustrate this, let us start with a simple noun phrase:
дә’кумуч [dæ̰kumut͡ʃ] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing squmut͡ʃ lamb “a lamb” | (9) |
In the following, the word for little becomes an affix attached to lamb:
дә’кумуцар [dæ̰kumut͡sɑr] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing squmut͡ʃ lamb -dɑr little “a little lamb” | (10) |
Compounding
Verbs
Inflectional Categories
There is one type of clitic in the verbal phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing voice.negation. a clitic expressing voice.negation, comprising чип /t͡ʃip/ ‘active.NEG’, ниԟ /niq/ ‘active.POS’, нув /nuw/ ‘passive.NEG’ and шәч /ʃæt͡ʃ/ ‘passive.POS’.
In addition, the verb is structured like this: first, an obligatory prefix expressing subj.mode.ta, comprising гвиф- /ɡʷif-/ ‘1incl.sing.indicative.PRES’, шај- /ʃɑj-/ ‘1incl.sing.indicative.PAST’, руд- /rud-/ ‘1incl.sing.imperative.PRES’, гиг- /ɡiɡ-/ ‘1incl.sing.imperative.PAST’, ԟикв- /qikʷ-/ ‘1incl.sing.conditional.PRES’, чос- /t͡ʃos-/ ‘1incl.sing.conditional.PAST’, жом- /ʒom-/ ‘1incl.sing.optative.PRES’, ѕид- /d͡zid-/ ‘1incl.sing.optative.PAST’, жос- /ʒos-/ ‘1excl.sing.indicative.PRES’, кваб- /kʷɑb-/ ‘1excl.sing.indicative.PAST’, дем- /dem-/ ‘1excl.sing.imperative.PRES’, ӈви’л- /ŋʷḭl-/ ‘1excl.sing.imperative.PAST’, мекв- /mekʷ-/ ‘1excl.sing.conditional.PRES’, фәв- /fæw-/ ‘1excl.sing.conditional.PAST’, пәч- /pæt͡ʃ-/ ‘1excl.sing.optative.PRES’, те’г- /tḛɡ-/ ‘1excl.sing.optative.PAST’, гим- /ɡim-/ ‘2.sing.indicative.PRES’, ваѕ- /wɑd͡z-/ ‘2.sing.indicative.PAST’, гвек- /ɡʷek-/ ‘2.sing.imperative.PRES’, лиӈв- /liŋʷ-/ ‘2.sing.imperative.PAST’, сиј- /sij-/ ‘2.sing.conditional.PRES’, квоч- /kʷot͡ʃ-/ ‘2.sing.conditional.PAST’, лик- /lik-/ ‘2.sing.optative.PRES’, тод- /tod-/ ‘2.sing.optative.PAST’, жиц- /ʒit͡s-/ ‘3.sing.masc.indicative.PRES’, нос- /nos-/ ‘3.sing.masc.indicative.PAST’, кве’к- /kʷḛk-/ ‘3.sing.masc.imperative.PRES’, пеԟв- /peqʷ-/ ‘3.sing.masc.imperative.PAST’, ԟуг- /quɡ-/ ‘3.sing.masc.conditional.PRES’, џе’ц- /d͡ʒḛt͡s-/ ‘3.sing.masc.conditional.PAST’, соф- /sof-/ ‘3.sing.masc.optative.PRES’, гвекв- /ɡʷekʷ-/ ‘3.sing.masc.optative.PAST’, ѕо’м- /d͡zo̰m-/ ‘3.sing.fem.indicative.PRES’, фо’д- /fo̰d-/ ‘3.sing.fem.indicative.PAST’, до’ӈ- /do̰ŋ-/ ‘3.sing.fem.imperative.PRES’, меб- /meb-/ ‘3.sing.fem.imperative.PAST’, ӈив- /ŋiw-/ ‘3.sing.fem.conditional.PRES’, јец- /jet͡s-/ ‘3.sing.fem.conditional.PAST’, сум- /sum-/ ‘3.sing.fem.optative.PRES’, цуԟв- /t͡suqʷ-/ ‘3.sing.fem.optative.PAST’, кид- /kid-/ ‘3.sing.neut.indicative.PRES’, лаф- /lɑf-/ ‘3.sing.neut.indicative.PAST’, жуп- /ʒup-/ ‘3.sing.neut.imperative.PRES’, пац- /pɑt͡s-/ ‘3.sing.neut.imperative.PAST’, жоџ- /ʒod͡ʒ-/ ‘3.sing.neut.conditional.PRES’, мә’ԟв- /mæ̰qʷ-/ ‘3.sing.neut.conditional.PAST’, ԟиш- /qiʃ-/ ‘3.sing.neut.optative.PRES’, мив- /miw-/ ‘3.sing.neut.optative.PAST’, ԟәб- /qæb-/ ‘1incl.plur.indicative.PRES’, ӈәж- /ŋæʒ-/ ‘1incl.plur.indicative.PAST’, чоӈ- /t͡ʃoŋ-/ ‘1incl.plur.imperative.PRES’, ѕе’кв- /d͡zḛkʷ-/ ‘1incl.plur.imperative.PAST’, сук- /suk-/ ‘1incl.plur.conditional.PRES’, киѕ- /kid͡z-/ ‘1incl.plur.conditional.PAST’, мап- /mɑp-/ ‘1incl.plur.optative.PRES’, сев- /sew-/ ‘1incl.plur.optative.PAST’, меп- /mep-/ ‘1excl.plur.indicative.PRES’, чә’в- /t͡ʃæ̰w-/ ‘1excl.plur.indicative.PAST’, гәкв- /ɡækʷ-/ ‘1excl.plur.imperative.PRES’, боӈв- /boŋʷ-/ ‘1excl.plur.imperative.PAST’, гигв- /ɡiɡʷ-/ ‘1excl.plur.conditional.PRES’, ԟве’ж- /qʷḛʒ-/ ‘1excl.plur.conditional.PAST’, зә’ц- /zæ̰t͡s-/ ‘1excl.plur.optative.PRES’, јәч- /jæt͡ʃ-/ ‘1excl.plur.optative.PAST’, гез- /ɡez-/ ‘2.plur.indicative.PRES’, кев- /kew-/ ‘2.plur.indicative.PAST’, цоц- /t͡sot͡s-/ ‘2.plur.imperative.PRES’, ԟвиԟ- /qʷiq-/ ‘2.plur.imperative.PAST’, јед- /jed-/ ‘2.plur.conditional.PRES’, јоц- /jot͡s-/ ‘2.plur.conditional.PAST’, ԟвим- /qʷim-/ ‘2.plur.optative.PRES’, цог- /t͡soɡ-/ ‘2.plur.optative.PAST’, чад- /t͡ʃɑd-/ ‘3.plur.masc.indicative.PRES’, ӈиӈ- /ŋiŋ-/ ‘3.plur.masc.indicative.PAST’, ԟвиб- /qʷib-/ ‘3.plur.masc.imperative.PRES’, цед- /t͡sed-/ ‘3.plur.masc.imperative.PAST’, јә’с- /jæ̰s-/ ‘3.plur.masc.conditional.PRES’, кәԟ- /kæq-/ ‘3.plur.masc.conditional.PAST’, тәџ- /tæd͡ʒ-/ ‘3.plur.masc.optative.PRES’, нәм- /næm-/ ‘3.plur.masc.optative.PAST’, вим- /wim-/ ‘3.plur.fem.indicative.PRES’, ԟвач- /qʷɑt͡ʃ-/ ‘3.plur.fem.indicative.PAST’, пиц- /pit͡s-/ ‘3.plur.fem.imperative.PRES’, виц- /wit͡s-/ ‘3.plur.fem.imperative.PAST’, џагв- /d͡ʒɑɡʷ-/ ‘3.plur.fem.conditional.PRES’, жеӈ- /ʒeŋ-/ ‘3.plur.fem.conditional.PAST’, цит- /t͡sit-/ ‘3.plur.fem.optative.PRES’, ѕов- /d͡zow-/ ‘3.plur.fem.optative.PAST’, зәѕ- /zæd͡z-/ ‘3.plur.neut.indicative.PRES’, ԟигв- /qiɡʷ-/ ‘3.plur.neut.indicative.PAST’, наж- /nɑʒ-/ ‘3.plur.neut.imperative.PRES’, меӈв- /meŋʷ-/ ‘3.plur.neut.imperative.PAST’, ѕиԟ- /d͡ziq-/ ‘3.plur.neut.conditional.PRES’, зе’н- /zḛn-/ ‘3.plur.neut.conditional.PAST’, фә’ѕ- /fæ̰d͡z-/ ‘3.plur.neut.optative.PRES’ and шум- /ʃum-/ ‘3.plur.neut.optative.PAST’; second, the root; third, an obligatory suffix expressing obj, comprising -п /-p/ ‘none’, -ц /-t͡s/ ‘1incl.sing’, -д /-d/ ‘1excl.sing’, -б /-b/ ‘2.sing’, -р /-r/ ‘3.sing.masc’, -т /-t/ ‘3.sing.fem’, -с /-s/ ‘3.sing.neut’, -џ /-d͡ʒ/ ‘1incl.plur’, -кв /-kʷ/ ‘1excl.plur’, -н /-n/ ‘2.plur’, -з /-z/ ‘3.plur.masc’, -ԟв /-qʷ/ ‘3.plur.fem’ and -к /-k/ ‘3.plur.neut’; and finally, fourth, an obligatory suffix expressing question, comprising -дәԟ /-dæq/ ‘Q’ and -чиф /-t͡ʃif/ ‘not.Q’.
The verb displays the following derivational morphology: two suffixes, namely -гу /-ɡu/ ‘begin’ and -дә /-dæ/ ‘stop’
Жосе’џиф ниԟ пец. [ʒosḛd͡ʒif niq pet͡s] ʒos- 1excl.sing.indicative.PRES sḛ love -b 2.sing.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS po 2.sing -et͡s sing “I love you.” | (11) |
Adverbs Minor Classes
Adpositions
There is one type of clitic in the adpositional phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing root.
гвәј дә’ԟвааѕ [ɡʷæj dæ̰qʷɑːd͡z] ɡʷæj in_surface l- LOC tæ̰k- sing qʷɑːd͡z table “on the table” | (12) |
де’ј дә’тикек [dḛj dæ̰tikek] dḛj to_inside l- LOC tæ̰k- sing t͡sikek box “into the box” | (13) |
не’гик тец [nḛɡik tet͡s] nḛɡik COMIT te 1excl.sing -et͡s sing “with me” | (14) |
Syntax
Basic Clause Structure
Constituent Order
Constituent order describes the typical arrangement of the subject (S), verb (V) and object (O) in simple declarative clauses. It is a fundamental parameter in grammatical description and forms one of the clearest ways of characterising the overall structure of a language’s clause system.
Naget employs Subject–Verb–Object (SVO) as its basic word order. The subject is followed by the verb, with the object occurring in post-verbal position. This ordering is widely attested across the world’s languages.
The following examples illustrate the basic, unmarked, constituent order in Naget.
Дә’ӈемо’п фо’гвиижиф ниԟ ѕә’квапон. [dæ̰ŋemo̰p fo̰ɡʷiːʒif niq d͡zæ̰kʷɑpon] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing nemo̰p jaguar fo̰d- 3.sing.fem.indicative.PAST kʷiː kill -r 3.sing.masc.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS d͡ʒ- ACC tæ̰k- sing wɑpon hunter “The jaguar killed the hunter.” | (15) |
Дә’цифи’ч фо’дечиф ниԟ ѕә’пиип сә’ԟеж сә’квапон. [dæ̰t͡sifḭt͡ʃ fo̰det͡ʃif niq d͡zæ̰piːp sæ̰qeʒ sæ̰kʷɑpon] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing zifḭt͡ʃ lion fo̰d- 3.sing.fem.indicative.PAST d͡ze eat -t 3.sing.fem.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS d͡ʒ- ACC tæ̰k- sing biːp dog f- GEN tæ̰k- sing qeʒ daughter f- GEN tæ̰k- sing wɑpon hunter “The lion ate the hunter’s daughter’s dog.” | (16) |
The language has a fixed constituent order, and major phrases normally appear in a predictable position in the clause. Movement for discourse reasons is highly restricted: topics and foci are expressed not by rearranging elements, but through dedicated constructions such as clefts, focus clauses or topic–comment frames. Constituents remain continuous, and both the relative order of phrases and the internal structure of each phrase are stable. As a result, significant deviations from the basic word order are ungrammatical, and discourse structure is managed through these specialised constructions rather than through word-order variation.
Noun Phrases
Structure and Order
The internal structure of noun phrases in Naget reveals typologically significant preferences in the ordering of nominal constituents. This includes the position of adjectives, numerals, and possessors relative to the noun, each of which can offer clues to the overall headedness of the language.
Possessive constructions are head-initial: the possessed noun precedes the possessor. For instance, Naget expresses “the child’s toy” with the equivalent of “toy child”. This structure is typologically rarer and often co-occurs with verb-initial syntax or with grammatical marking on the noun.
дә’тиибәр сә’чуԟ сә’чән пец [dæ̰tiːbær sæ̰t͡ʃuq sæ̰t͡ʃæn pet͡s] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing liːbær book f- GEN tæ̰k- sing d͡ʒuq friend f- GEN tæ̰k- sing t͡ʃæn son po 2.sing -et͡s sing “your son’s friend’s book” | (17) |
Case Marking
Naget uses nominative–accusative case marking. The subject of an intransitive verb and the subject of a transitive verb are treated alike and take the nominative case, while the object of a transitive verb is marked with the accusative case. This is the familiar pattern from many European languages: the grammar groups together the participants that function as subjects and marks the participant affected by a transitive action separately.
Дә’кон ѕо’мичиф ниԟ. [dæ̰kon d͡zo̰mit͡ʃif niq] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing ɡon cat d͡zo̰m- 3.sing.fem.indicative.PRES pi sleep -p none.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS “The cat is sleeping.” | (18) |
Дә’кон ѕо’моочиф. [dæ̰kon d͡zo̰moːt͡ʃif] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing ɡon cat d͡zo̰m- 3.sing.fem.indicative.PRES moː run -p none.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q “The cat is running.” | (19) |
Дә’кон ѕо’мозичиф ѕә’тиижаџ. [dæ̰kon d͡zo̰mozit͡ʃif d͡zæ̰tiːʒɑd͡ʒ] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing ɡon cat d͡zo̰m- 3.sing.fem.indicative.PRES fozi chase -t 3.sing.fem.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q d͡ʒ- ACC tæ̰k- sing diːʒɑd͡ʒ mouse “The cat is chasing the mouse.” | (20) |
Дә’кон фо’ԟеечиф ниԟ ѕә’тиижаџ. [dæ̰kon fo̰qeːt͡ʃif niq d͡zæ̰tiːʒɑd͡ʒ] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing ɡon cat fo̰d- 3.sing.fem.indicative.PAST qeː catch -t 3.sing.fem.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS d͡ʒ- ACC tæ̰k- sing diːʒɑd͡ʒ mouse “The cat caught the mouse.” | (21) |
Conjunctions
Here is an example of a conjunction.
Дә’квапон носквиичиф ниԟ ѕе’ӈвемо’п џив ѕе’ԟииви’р џив ѕе’цифи’ч. [dæ̰kʷɑpon noskʷiːt͡ʃif niq d͡zḛŋʷemo̰p d͡ʒiw d͡zḛqiːwḭr d͡ʒiw d͡zḛt͡sifḭt͡ʃ] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing wɑpon hunter nos- 3.sing.masc.indicative.PAST kʷiː kill -qʷ 3.plur.fem.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS d͡ʒ- ACC d͡zḛkʷ- plur nemo̰p jaguar d͡ʒiw and d͡ʒ- ACC d͡zḛkʷ- plur qiːwḭr tiger d͡ʒiw and d͡ʒ- ACC d͡zḛkʷ- plur zifḭt͡ʃ lion “The hunter killed the jaguars, the tigers and the lions.” | (22) |
Modifiers and Determiners
The ordering of demonstratives, articles (if present), and other modifiers in Naget provides further insight into the structure of the noun phrase. These elements frequently exhibit fixed positions and may reveal whether the language favours head-initial or head-final patterns.
Complex Sentences
Relative Clauses
Naget forms relative clauses by placing the relative clause after the noun it modifies. The clause follows the internal word order of ordinary finite clauses. A dedicated relativising marker introduces the clause and identifies the relationship between the head noun and its role inside the relative clause.
To illustrate how relative clauses work, let us begin with a simple sentence:
Квадијәәчиф ниԟ ѕә’кон. [kʷɑdijæːt͡ʃif niq d͡zæ̰kon] kʷɑb- 1excl.sing.indicative.PAST dijæː pat -t 3.sing.fem.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS d͡ʒ- ACC tæ̰k- sing ɡon cat “I patted the cat.” | (23) |
We can now add a relative clause modifying the noun:
Квадијәәчиф ниԟ дә’кон, ѕец фо’ԟеечиф ниԟ ѕә’тиижаџ. [kʷɑdijæːt͡ʃif niq dæ̰kon, d͡zet͡s fo̰qeːt͡ʃif niq d͡zæ̰tiːʒɑd͡ʒ] kʷɑb- 1excl.sing.indicative.PAST dijæː pat -p none.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS j- NOM tæ̰k- sing ɡon cat d͡zeː RELPRON -et͡s sing fo̰d- 3.sing.fem.indicative.PAST qeː catch -t 3.sing.fem.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS d͡ʒ- ACC tæ̰k- sing diːʒɑd͡ʒ mouse “I patted the cat that caught the mouse.” | (24) |
Relative clauses may themselves contain other relative clauses:
Квадијәәчиф ниԟ дә’кон, ѕец фо’ԟеечиф ниԟ дә’тиижаџ, ѕец фо’дешиф ниԟ ѕә’туԟвеб. [kʷɑdijæːt͡ʃif niq dæ̰kon, d͡zet͡s fo̰qeːt͡ʃif niq dæ̰tiːʒɑd͡ʒ, d͡zet͡s fo̰deʃif niq d͡zæ̰tuqʷeb] kʷɑb- 1excl.sing.indicative.PAST dijæː pat -p none.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS j- NOM tæ̰k- sing ɡon cat d͡zeː RELPRON -et͡s sing fo̰d- 3.sing.fem.indicative.PAST qeː catch -p none.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS j- NOM tæ̰k- sing diːʒɑd͡ʒ mouse d͡zeː RELPRON -et͡s sing fo̰d- 3.sing.fem.indicative.PAST d͡ze eat -s 3.sing.neut.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS d͡ʒ- ACC tæ̰k- sing luqʷeb cheese “I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese.” | (25) |
Finally, here is an example containing several layers of embedding:
Квадијәәчиф ниԟ дә’кон, ѕец фо’ԟеечиф ниԟ дә’тиижаџ, ѕец фо’дечиф ниԟ дә’туԟвеб, ѕец кваѕошиф ниԟ тец. [kʷɑdijæːt͡ʃif niq dæ̰kon, d͡zet͡s fo̰qeːt͡ʃif niq dæ̰tiːʒɑd͡ʒ, d͡zet͡s fo̰det͡ʃif niq dæ̰tuqʷeb, d͡zet͡s kʷɑd͡zoʃif niq tet͡s] kʷɑb- 1excl.sing.indicative.PAST dijæː pat -p none.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS j- NOM tæ̰k- sing ɡon cat d͡zeː RELPRON -et͡s sing fo̰d- 3.sing.fem.indicative.PAST qeː catch -p none.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS j- NOM tæ̰k- sing diːʒɑd͡ʒ mouse d͡zeː RELPRON -et͡s sing fo̰d- 3.sing.fem.indicative.PAST d͡ze eat -p none.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS j- NOM tæ̰k- sing luqʷeb cheese d͡zeː RELPRON -et͡s sing kʷɑb- 1excl.sing.indicative.PAST so buy -s 3.sing.neut.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS te 1excl.sing -et͡s sing “I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese that I bought.” | (26) |
Complementation Strategies
Naget introduces complement clauses with a dedicated complementiser, similar to English that. The complementiser appears at the beginning of the embedded clause and signals that the clause functions as a syntactic argument. The embedded clause is fully finite and displays the same tense, aspect and agreement patterns as independent clauses.
The following example illustrate how complement clauses function:
Дә’ӈир ношушиф ниԟ нә’ӈи’т ѕә’ԟвоцәџ личәр носпопачиф ниԟ нә’киитәр. [dæ̰ŋir noʃuʃif niq næ̰ŋḭt d͡zæ̰qʷot͡sæd͡ʒ lit͡ʃær nospopɑt͡ʃif niq næ̰kiːtær] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing mir boy nos- 3.sing.masc.indicative.PAST d͡ʒu give -s 3.sing.neut.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS m- DAT tæ̰k- sing ŋḭt girl d͡ʒ- ACC tæ̰k- sing qʷot͡sæd͡ʒ apple lit͡ʃær COMP nos- 3.sing.masc.indicative.PAST popɑ surprise -p none.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS m- DAT tæ̰k- sing ɡiːtær teacher “It surprised the teacher that the boy had given the girl an apple.” | (27) |
Quotes
Naget employs a quotative particle to mark direct and indirect speech. The quotative follows the reported phrase and identifies the preceding expression as quoted or reported. The same construction is also used to express reported thoughts.
Here is an example of how quotations are expressed:
Дә’ӈир нофаџиф ниԟ нә’ӈи’т тец жосе’џиф ниԟ пец личәр. [dæ̰ŋir nofɑd͡ʒif niq næ̰ŋḭt tet͡s ʒosḛd͡ʒif niq pet͡s lit͡ʃær] j- NOM tæ̰k- sing mir boy nos- 3.sing.masc.indicative.PAST fɑ tell -d 1excl.sing.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS m- DAT tæ̰k- sing ŋḭt girl te 1excl.sing -et͡s sing ʒos- 1excl.sing.indicative.PRES sḛ love -b 2.sing.OBJ -t͡ʃif not.Q niq active.POS po 2.sing -et͡s sing lit͡ʃær COMP “The boy told the girl that he loved her.” | (28) |
How to cite this grammar
Language Creator. 2026. A Grammar of Naget. Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.93, on 8 November 2026. https://languagecreator.org/grammar/6YM3A
In BibTeX format:
@misc{LC-6YM3A,
year = 2026,
author = {{Language Creator}},
title = {A Grammar of {Naget}},
howpublished = {\url{https://languagecreator.org/grammar/6YM3A}},
note = {Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.93, on 8 November 2026}
}
Supplementary Materials
A collection of illustrative texts and a bilingual dictionary (English–Naget / Naget–English) accompany this grammar. The complete work – comprising the grammar, dictionary and texts – may also be downloaded in ODT or DOCX format.
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