A Grammar of Hoel
Introduction
Scope and Purpose
This grammar provides a systematic description of the Hoel language (the 2040th one produced by the Language Creator), outlining its sound system, word formation and syntactic structure, with the aim of presenting a coherent account of the language as an integrated whole. Attention has been paid to both regular patterns and minor irregularities, as these together define the internal balance of the language.
The grammar is accompanied by a bilingual dictionary and a collection of illustrative texts, offering material for further study and comparison. The examples have been selected to demonstrate typical constructions and to give a sense of the language in extended use. The description is intended as a reference work for linguists and language enthusiasts alike, and as a foundation for any future research, teaching or creative adaptation of Hoel.
Typological Profile
It has a highly marked collection of uvular, pharyngeal and epiglottal contrasts, a full set of ejective articulations, a richly elaborated system of click consonants, proper polysynthesis and not just singular and plural, but also dual,.Phonology
Phoneme Inventory
Consonants
Hoel has an astonishing 374 consonant phonemes, exceeding any consonant system known to the author. The inventory is remarkably extensive.
It has a maximally developed dental–alveolar opposition, a richly developed retroflex subsystem, an extensive and fully contrastive palatal series, a highly marked collection of uvular, pharyngeal and epiglottal contrasts and an exceptionally large and contrastive set of fricatives.The table below presents the full inventory of consonant phonemes in Hoel. The chart lists all places and manners of articulation attested in the language.
| vel. labial | pal. labial | phar. labial | vel. dental | pal. dental | lab. dental | phar. dental | vel. alveolar | pal. alveolar | lab. alveolar | phar. alveolar | postalveolar | vel. postalveolar | pal. postalveolar | vel. lateral | pal. lateral | palatal | vel. retroflex | pal. retroflex | vel. velar | pal. velar | lab. velar | phar. velar | vel. uvular | pal. uvular | lab. uvular | phar. uvular | vel. pharyngeal | pal. pharyngeal | vel. epiglottal | pal. epiglottal | glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| stop | pˠ bˠ | pʲ bʲ | pˤ bˤ | d̪ˠ t̪ˠ | d̪ʲ t̪ʲ | d̪ʷ t̪ʷ | d̪ˤ t̪ˤ | dˠ tˠ | dʲ tʲ | dʷ tʷ | dˤ tˤ | ɖˠ ʈˠ | ɖʲ ʈʲ | kˠ ɡˠ | kʲ ɡʲ | kʷ ɡʷ | kˤ ɡˤ | qˠ ɢˠ | qʲ ɢʲ | qʷ ɢʷ | qˤ ɢˤ | ʡˠ | ʡʲ | ʔ | ||||||||
| aspirated stop | pʰˠ | pʰʲ | pʰˤ | tʰˠ | tʰʲ | tʰʷ | tʰˤ | ʈʰˠ | ʈʰʲ | kʰˠ | kʰʲ | kʰʷ | kʰˤ | qʰˠ | qʰʲ | qʰʷ | qʰˤ | |||||||||||||||
| preaspirated stop | hpˠ | hpʲ | hpˤ | htˠ | htʲ | htʷ | htˤ | hʈˠ | hʈʲ | hkˠ | hkʲ | hkʷ | hkˤ | |||||||||||||||||||
| breathy stop | bʱˠ | bʱʲ | bʱˤ | dʱˠ | dʱʲ | dʱʷ | dʱˤ | ɖʱˠ | ɖʱʲ | ɡʱˠ | ɡʱʲ | ɡʱʷ | ɡʱˤ | |||||||||||||||||||
| ejective stop | pˠʼ | pʲʼ | pˤʼ | tˠʼ | tʲʼ | tʷʼ | tˤʼ | ʈˠʼ | ʈʲʼ | kˠʼ | kʲʼ | kʷʼ | kˤʼ | qˠʼ | qʲʼ | qʷʼ | qˤʼ | |||||||||||||||
| nasal | mˠ m̥ˠ | mʲ m̥ʲ | mˤ m̥ˤ | n̪ˠ | n̪ʲ | n̪ʷ | n̪ˤ | nˠ n̥ˠ | nʲ n̥ʲ | nʷ n̥ʷ | nˤ n̥ˤ | ɳˠ ɳ̥ˠ | ɳʲ ɳ̥ʲ | ŋˠ ŋ̥ˠ | ŋʲ ŋ̥ʲ | ŋʷ ŋ̥ʷ | ŋˤ ŋ̥ˤ | ɴˠ | ɴʲ | ɴʷ | ɴˤ | |||||||||||
| trill/tap/flap | rˠ r̥ˠ ɾˠ | rʲ r̥ʲ ɾʲ | rʷ r̥ʷ ɾʷ | rˤ r̥ˤ ɾˤ | ɺˠ | ɺʲ | ɽˠ | ɽʲ | ʜˠ | ʜʲ | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| fricative | fˠ vˠ ɸˠ βˠ | fʲ vʲ ɸʲ βʲ | fˤ vˤ ɸˤ βˤ | ðˠ θˠ | ðʲ θʲ | ðʷ θʷ | ðˤ θˤ | sˠ zˠ | sʲ zʲ | sʷ zʷ | sˤ zˤ | ʃˠ ʒˠ | ʃʲ ʒʲ | ɬˠ ɮˠ | ɬʲ ɮʲ | ʂˠ ʐˠ | ʂʲ ʐʲ | xˠ ɣˠ | xʲ ɣʲ | xʷ ɣʷ | xˤ ɣˤ | ʁˠ χˠ | ʁʲ χʲ | ʁʷ χʷ | ʁˤ χˤ | ħˠ ʕˠ | ħʲ ʕʲ | h | ||||
| approximant | ʋˠ ɥˠ | ʋʲ ɥʲ | ʋˤ ɥˤ | l̪ˠ | l̪ʲ | l̪ʷ | l̪ˤ | ɹˠ | ɹʲ | ɹʷ | ɹˤ | lˠ ɭˠ | lʲ ɭʲ | j | ɻˠ | ɻʲ | ɰˠ | ɰʲ | ɰʷ | ɰˤ | ||||||||||||
| affricate | p͡fˠ | p͡fʲ | p͡fˤ | d͡zˠ t͡sˠ | d͡zʲ t͡sʲ | d͡zʷ t͡sʷ | d͡zˤ t͡sˤ | d͡ʒ t͡ʃ | tɬˠ | tɬʲ | d͡ʐˠ t͡ʂˠ | d͡ʐʲ t͡ʂʲ | k͡xˠ | k͡xʲ | k͡xʷ | k͡xˤ | q͡χˠ | q͡χʲ | q͡χʷ | q͡χˤ | ||||||||||||
| implosive | ɓˠ | ɓʲ | ɓˤ | ɗˠ | ɗʲ | ɗʷ | ɗˤ | ʄˠ | ʄʲ | ɠˠ | ɠʲ | ɠʷ | ɠˤ | ʛˠ | ʛʲ | ʛʷ | ʛˤ | |||||||||||||||
| click | ᵏǀˠ ᵏǀʰˠ ᶢǀˠ | ᵏǀʲ ᵏǀʰʲ ᶢǀʲ | ᵏǀʷ ᵏǀʰʷ ᶢǀʷ | ᵏǀˤ ᵏǀʰˤ ᶢǀˤ | ᵏǃˠ ᵏǃʰˠ ᶢǃˠ | ᵏǃʲ ᵏǃʰʲ ᶢǃʲ | ᵏǃʷ ᵏǃʰʷ ᶢǃʷ | ᵏǃˤ ᵏǃʰˤ ᶢǃˤ | ᵏǁˠ ᵏǁʰˠ ᶢǁˠ | ᵏǁʲ ᵏǁʰʲ ᶢǁʲ | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| ejective click | ᵏǀˠʼ | ᵏǀʲʼ | ᵏǀʷʼ | ᵏǀˤʼ | ᵏǃˠʼ | ᵏǃʲʼ | ᵏǃʷʼ | ᵏǃˤʼ | ᵏǁˠʼ | ᵏǁʲʼ | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| click, nasal | ᵑǀˠ ᵑǀʱˠ | ᵑǀʲ ᵑǀʱʲ | ᵑǀʷ ᵑǀʱʷ | ᵑǀˤ ᵑǀʱˤ | ᵑǃˠ ᵑǃʱˠ | ᵑǃʲ ᵑǃʱʲ | ᵑǃʷ ᵑǃʱʷ | ᵑǃˤ ᵑǃʱˤ | ᵑǁˠ ᵑǁʱˠ | ᵑǁʲ ᵑǁʱʲ | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| ejective click, nasal | ᵑǀˠʼ | ᵑǀʲʼ | ᵑǀʷʼ | ᵑǀˤʼ | ᵑǃˠʼ | ᵑǃʲʼ | ᵑǃʷʼ | ᵑǃˤʼ | ᵑǁˠʼ | ᵑǁʲʼ | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| breathy affricate | d͡ʒʱˠ | d͡ʒʱʲ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| aspirated affricate | t͡sʰˠ | t͡sʰʲ | t͡sʰʷ | t͡sʰˤ | t͡ʃʰˠ | t͡ʃʰʲ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ejective affricate | t͡sˠʼ | t͡sʲʼ | t͡sʷʼ | t͡sˤʼ | t͡ʃˠʼ | t͡ʃʲʼ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| breathy trill/tap/flap | ɽʱˠ | ɽʱʲ |
Vowels
Hoel has more than 14 vowel qualities. This constitutes an exceptionally rich vowel inventory, with numerous distinct categories represented in the chart.
It has a fully developed system of nasal vowels matching the oral height distinctions, a fully contrastive long–short vowel distinction across the system, a highly marked system where syllables may lack audible vowels entirely, a maximally “square” vowel system balancing heights across backness and a full range of vowel qualities even in reduced syllables.The table below presents the full inventory of vowel phonemes in Hoel. The system comprises the distinct vowel qualities listed in the chart.
| front unrounded | front rounded | central | back | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| close | i ĩ | y ỹ | ʉ ʉ̃ | u ũ |
| close-mid | e ẽ | ø ø̃ | ɵ ɵ̃ | o õ |
| open-mid | ɛ ɛ̃ | œ œ̃ | ɞ ɞ̃ | ɔ ɔ̃ |
| open | ɶ ɶ̃ | a ã |
Stress and Tones
Hoel has phonemic stress and 6 lexical tones. Each lexical item carries a tonal specification associated with the first vowel of the root, which determines the overall tonal contour of the word.
Phonological Processes
Vowel Harmony
The language employs vowel harmony. To be specific, the following vowels change to match the first vowel of the root: /u/ becomes /y/, /o/ becomes /ø/, /ɔ/ becomes /œ/, /ɑ/ becomes /ɶ/.
Writing System
Introduction
Hoel is normally written using the Latin alphabet, whose familiarity makes it straightforward for most readers. For clarity and precision, phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are also provided throughout this grammar.
Orthography
Here are the various components of the orthography:
Simple letters
| a /a/ | ḅ /bˤ/ | c̣ /ᵏǀˤ/ | ḍ /dˤ, d̪ˤ/ |
| e /e/ | f̣ /fˤ/ | g̣ /ɡˤ/ | h /h/ |
| i /i/ | j /d͡ʒ/ | ḳ /kˤ/ | ḷ /l̪ˤ/ |
| ṃ /mˤ/ | ṇ /nˤ, n̪ˤ/ | o /ɔ/ | p̣ /pˤ/ |
| q /ʔ/ | q̣ /qˤ/ | ṛ /ɾˤ/ | r̥̣ /r̥ˤ/ |
| ṣ /sˤ/ | ṭ /tˤ, t̪ˤ/ | u /u/ | ṿ /vˤ/ |
| ẉ /ʋˤ/ | y /j/ | ẓ /zˤ/ | æ /ɛ/ |
| ð̣ /ðˤ/ | ó /o/ | ö /ø/ | ü /y/ |
| þ̣ /θˤ/ | ğ̣ /ɣˤ/ | ṇ́ /n̥ˤ/ | ŋ̥̣ /ŋ̥ˤ/ |
| œ /œ/ | ṛ́ /rˤ/ | ɞ /ɞ/ | ɥ̣ /ɥˤ/ |
| ɵ /ɵ/ | ɶ /ɶ/ | ɹ̣ /ɹˤ/ | ʉ /ʉ/ |
| ʛ̣ /ʛˤ/ | β̣ /βˤ/ | ṕ̣ /p͡fˤ/ | ẉ̈ /ɰˤ/ |
Multi-letter combinations such as digraphs
| aa /aː/ | ai /ai/ | an /ã/ |
| anan /ãː/ | au /au/ | bbi /ɓʲ/ |
| bbo /ɓˠ/ | bḅ /ɓˤ/ | bhi /bʱʲ/ |
| bho /bʱˠ/ | bḥ /bʱˤ/ | bi /bʲ/ |
| bo /bˠ/ | bpi /pʼʲ/ | bpo /pʼˠ/ |
| bp̣ /pʼˤ/ | chi /χʲ, ᵏǀʰʲ/ | cho /χˠ, ᵏǀʰˠ/ |
| chw /χʷ, ᵏǀʰʷ/ | chʼi /t͡ʃʼʲ/ | chʼo /t͡ʃʼˠ/ |
| cḥ /χˤ, ᵏǀʰˤ/ | ci /ᵏǀʲ/ | co /ᵏǀˠ/ |
| cw /ᵏǀʷ/ | ddi /ɗʲ/ | ddo /ɗˠ/ |
| ddw /ɗʷ/ | dḍ /ɗˤ/ | dhi /dʱʲ/ |
| dho /dʱˠ/ | dhw /dʱʷ/ | dḥ /dʱˤ/ |
| di /dʲ, d̪ʲ/ | dj /t͡ʃ/ | djhi /t͡ʃʰʲ/ |
| djho /t͡ʃʰˠ/ | do /dˠ, d̪ˠ/ | dti /tʼʲ/ |
| dto /tʼˠ/ | dtw /tʼʷ/ | dṭ /tʼˤ/ |
| dw /dʷ, d̪ʷ/ | dzi /d͡zʲ/ | dzo /d͡zˠ/ |
| dzw /d͡zʷ/ | dẓ /d͡zˤ/ | d͡ʐi /d͡ʐʲ/ |
| d͡ʐo /d͡ʐˠ/ | ee /eː/ | en /ẽ/ |
| enen /ẽː/ | fi /fʲ/ | fo /fˠ/ |
| gci /ᶢǀʲ/ | gco /ᶢǀˠ/ | gcw /ᶢǀʷ/ |
| gc̣ /ᶢǀˤ/ | ggi /ɠʲ/ | ggo /ɠˠ/ |
| ggw /ɠʷ/ | gg̣ /ɠˤ/ | ghi /ɡʱʲ/ |
| gho /ɡʱˠ/ | ghw /ɡʱʷ/ | gḥ /ɡʱˤ/ |
| gi /ɡʲ/ | gki /kʼʲ/ | gko /kʼˠ/ |
| gḳ /kʼˤ/ | go /ɡˠ/ | gqi /qʼʲ, ᶢǃʲ/ |
| gqo /qʼˠ, ᶢǃˠ/ | gqu /kʼʷ/ | gqw /qʼʷ, ᶢǃʷ/ |
| gq̣ /qʼˤ, ᶢǃˤ/ | gw /ɡʷ/ | gxi /ᶢǁʲ/ |
| gxo /ᶢǁˠ/ | għi /ʕʲ/ | għo /ʕˠ/ |
| hki /hkʲ/ | hko /hkˠ/ | hkw /hkʷ/ |
| hḳ /hkˤ/ | hli /ɬʲ, ɮʲ/ | hlo /ɬˠ, ɮˠ/ |
| hmi /m̥ʲ/ | hmo /m̥ˠ/ | hṃ /m̥ˤ/ |
| hpi /hpʲ/ | hpo /hpˠ/ | hp̣ /hpˤ/ |
| hti /htʲ/ | hto /htˠ/ | htw /htʷ/ |
| hṭ /htˤ/ | hʈi /hʈʲ/ | hʈo /hʈˠ/ |
| ii /iː/ | in /ĩ/ | inin /ĩː/ |
| jhi /d͡ʒʱʲ/ | jho /d͡ʒʱˠ/ | jji /ʄʲ/ |
| jjo /ʄˠ/ | khi /kʰʲ/ | kho /kʰˠ/ |
| khw /xʷ/ | kḥ /kʰˤ/ | ki /kʲ/ |
| ko /kˠ/ | kxi /k͡xʲ/ | kxo /k͡xˠ/ |
| kxw /k͡xʷ/ | kx̣ /k͡xˤ/ | li /lʲ, l̪ʲ/ |
| lo /lˠ, l̪ˠ/ | lw /l̪ʷ/ | mi /mʲ/ |
| mo /mˠ/ | nci /ᵑǀʲ/ | nco /ᵑǀˠ/ |
| ncw /ᵑǀʷ/ | nc̣ /ᵑǀˤ/ | ngci /ᵑǀʱʲ/ |
| ngco /ᵑǀʱˠ/ | ngcw /ᵑǀʱʷ/ | ngc̣ /ᵑǀʱˤ/ |
| ngi /ŋʲ/ | ngo /ŋˠ/ | ngqi /ᵑǃʱʲ/ |
| ngqo /ᵑǃʱˠ/ | ngqw /ᵑǃʱʷ/ | ngq̣ /ᵑǃʱˤ/ |
| ngw /ŋʷ/ | ngxi /ᵑǁʱʲ/ | ngxo /ᵑǁʱˠ/ |
| ng̣ /ŋˤ/ | ni /nʲ, n̪ʲ/ | no /nˠ, n̪ˠ/ |
| nqi /ᵑǃʲ/ | nqo /ᵑǃˠ/ | nqw /ᵑǃʷ/ |
| nq̣ /ᵑǃˤ/ | nw /nʷ, n̪ʷ/ | nxi /ᵑǁʲ/ |
| nxo /ᵑǁˠ/ | oi /ɔi/ | on /ɔ̃/ |
| onon /ɔ̃ː/ | oo /ɔː/ | phi /pʰʲ/ |
| pho /pʰˠ/ | pḥ /pʰˤ/ | pi /pʲ/ |
| po /pˠ/ | qhi /qʰʲ, ʁʲ, ᵏǃʰʲ/ | qho /qʰˠ, ʁˠ, ᵏǃʰˠ/ |
| qhw /qʰʷ, ʁʷ, ᵏǃʰʷ/ | qḥ /qʰˤ, ʁˤ, ᵏǃʰˤ/ | qi /qʲ/ |
| qo /qˠ/ | qqhi /q͡χʲ/ | qqho /q͡χˠ/ |
| qqhw /q͡χʷ/ | qqḥ /q͡χˤ/ | qu /kʷ/ |
| quh /kʰʷ/ | qw /qʷ/ | rdhi /ɖʱʲ/ |
| rdho /ɖʱˠ/ | rdi /ɖʲ/ | rdo /ɖˠ/ |
| ri /ɾʲ/ | rni /ɳʲ, ɴʲ/ | rno /ɳˠ, ɴˠ/ |
| rnw /ɴʷ/ | rṇ /ɴˤ/ | ro /ɾˠ/ |
| rrhi /ɽʱʲ/ | rrho /ɽʱˠ/ | rri /ɽʲ/ |
| rro /ɽˠ/ | rsi /ʂʲ/ | rso /ʂˠ/ |
| rthi /ʈʰʲ/ | rtho /ʈʰˠ/ | rti /ʈʲ/ |
| rto /ʈˠ/ | rw /ɾʷ/ | rzi /ʐʲ/ |
| rzo /ʐˠ/ | r̥i /r̥ʲ/ | r̥o /r̥ˠ/ |
| r̥w /r̥ʷ/ | shi /ʃʲ/ | sho /ʃˠ/ |
| si /sʲ/ | so /sˠ/ | sw /sʷ/ |
| thi /tʰʲ/ | tho /tʰˠ/ | thw /tʰʷ/ |
| tḥ /tʰˤ/ | ti /tʲ, t̪ʲ/ | tlhi /tɬʲ/ |
| tlho /tɬˠ/ | to /tˠ, t̪ˠ/ | tw /tʷ, t̪ʷ/ |
| tzhi /t͡sʰʲ/ | tzho /t͡sʰˠ/ | tzhw /t͡sʰʷ/ |
| tzḥ /t͡sʰˤ/ | tzi /t͡sʲ/ | tzo /t͡sˠ/ |
| tzw /t͡sʷ/ | tzʼi /t͡sʼʲ/ | tzʼo /t͡sʼˠ/ |
| tzʼw /t͡sʼʷ/ | tzʼ̣ /t͡sʼˤ/ | tẓ /t͡sˤ/ |
| t͡ʂi /t͡ʂʲ/ | t͡ʂo /t͡ʂˠ/ | un /ũ/ |
| unun /ũː/ | uu /uː/ | vi /vʲ/ |
| vo /vˠ/ | whi /ɸʲ/ | who /ɸˠ/ |
| wḥ /ɸˤ/ | wi /ʋʲ/ | wo /ʋˠ/ |
| xhi /ᵏǁʰʲ/ | xho /ᵏǁʰˠ/ | xi /ᵏǁʲ/ |
| xo /ᵏǁˠ/ | xxi /xʲ/ | xxo /xˠ/ |
| xx̣ /xˤ/ | zhi /ʒʲ/ | zho /ʒˠ/ |
| zi /zʲ/ | zo /zˠ/ | zw /zʷ/ |
| æn /ɛ̃/ | ænæn /ɛ̃ː/ | ææ /ɛː/ |
| ði /ðʲ/ | ðo /ðˠ/ | ðw /ðʷ/ |
| ón /õ/ | ónón /õː/ | óó /oː/ |
| ön /ø̃/ | önön /ø̃ː/ | öö /øː/ |
| ün /ỹ/ | ünün /ỹː/ | üü /yː/ |
| þi /θʲ/ | þo /θˠ/ | þw /θʷ/ |
| ği /ɣʲ/ | ğo /ɣˠ/ | ğw /ɣʷ/ |
| ħgi /ɢʲ/ | ħgo /ɢˠ/ | ħgw /ɢʷ/ |
| ħg̣ /ɢˤ/ | ħi /ħʲ/ | ħo /ħˠ/ |
| ħħi /ʜʲ/ | ħħo /ʜˠ/ | ńi /n̥ʲ/ |
| ńo /n̥ˠ/ | ńw /n̥ʷ/ | ŋ̥i /ŋ̥ʲ/ |
| ŋ̥o /ŋ̥ˠ/ | ŋ̥w /ŋ̥ʷ/ | œn /œ̃/ |
| œnœn /œ̃ː/ | œœ /œː/ | ŕi /rʲ/ |
| ŕo /rˠ/ | ŕw /rʷ/ | ɞn /ɞ̃/ |
| ɞnɞn /ɞ̃ː/ | ɞɞ /ɞː/ | ɥi /ɥʲ/ |
| ɥo /ɥˠ/ | ɭi /ɭʲ/ | ɭo /ɭˠ/ |
| ɳ̥i /ɳ̥ʲ/ | ɳ̥o /ɳ̥ˠ/ | ɵn /ɵ̃/ |
| ɵnɵn /ɵ̃ː/ | ɵɵ /ɵː/ | ɶn /ɶ̃/ |
| ɶnɶn /ɶ̃ː/ | ɶɶ /ɶː/ | ɹi /ɹʲ/ |
| ɹo /ɹˠ/ | ɹw /ɹʷ/ | ɺi /ɺʲ/ |
| ɺo /ɺˠ/ | ɻi /ɻʲ/ | ɻo /ɻˠ/ |
| ʈʼi /ʈʼʲ/ | ʈʼo /ʈʼˠ/ | ʉn /ʉ̃/ |
| ʉnʉn /ʉ̃ː/ | ʉʉ /ʉː/ | ʛi /ʛʲ/ |
| ʛo /ʛˠ/ | ʛw /ʛʷ/ | ʡi /ʡʲ/ |
| ʡo /ʡˠ/ | βi /βʲ/ | βo /βˠ/ |
| ᵏǀʼi /ᵏǀʼʲ/ | ᵏǀʼo /ᵏǀʼˠ/ | ᵏǀʼw /ᵏǀʼʷ/ |
| ᵏǀʼ̣ /ᵏǀʼˤ/ | ᵏǁʼi /ᵏǁʼʲ/ | ᵏǁʼo /ᵏǁʼˠ/ |
| ᵏǃi /ᵏǃʲ/ | ᵏǃo /ᵏǃˠ/ | ᵏǃw /ᵏǃʷ/ |
| ᵏǃʼi /ᵏǃʼʲ/ | ᵏǃʼo /ᵏǃʼˠ/ | ᵏǃʼw /ᵏǃʼʷ/ |
| ᵏǃʼ̣ /ᵏǃʼˤ/ | ᵏǃ̣ /ᵏǃˤ/ | ᵑǀʼi /ᵑǀʼʲ/ |
| ᵑǀʼo /ᵑǀʼˠ/ | ᵑǀʼw /ᵑǀʼʷ/ | ᵑǀʼ̣ /ᵑǀʼˤ/ |
| ᵑǁʼi /ᵑǁʼʲ/ | ᵑǁʼo /ᵑǁʼˠ/ | ᵑǃʼi /ᵑǃʼʲ/ |
| ᵑǃʼo /ᵑǃʼˠ/ | ᵑǃʼw /ᵑǃʼʷ/ | ᵑǃʼ̣ /ᵑǃʼˤ/ |
| ṕi /p͡fʲ/ | ṕo /p͡fˠ/ | ẅi /ɰʲ/ |
| ẅo /ɰˠ/ | ẅw /ɰʷ/ |
Diacritics
| ◌̀ /꜒꜖/ | ◌́ /꜖꜒/ | ◌̃ /̰꜒/ | ◌̄ /꜒/ |
| ◌̉ /̰꜖/ | ◌̠ /꜖/ |
Word Classes and Morphology
Number and Gender
Number
Hoel distinguishes singular, dual and plural.
Gender
Hoel has the following noun classes:
Class cl.1 – for instance: dwíp̣ ‘day’, dẓiqỉd͡ʐi ‘grass’, hpiańṛ́ ‘tree’, ngq̣ünün̄ħħi ‘fruit’, ngxiad͡ʐióó̉ṭ ‘root’, nqwzwphiæ̉rzo ‘forest’, piɞrsihkwʉ̉t͡ʂi ‘flower’, qqhoɞsogqoʉñɥo ‘bark’, rsigqoɵẉ̈ɞ̉vo ‘bank’, shikiʉʉhp̣éngo ‘apple’, toãħgi ‘leaf’, zithwezodṭɶ̃tẓ ‘seed’, ɥiorzigqiańxxo ‘wheat’, ᵏǃʼwshorthiíṇ ‘stick’.
Class cl.2 – for instance: bḥiidjɵɵlo ‘teacher’, c̣anr̥oo̠ghi ‘God’, dhiʉ̄no ‘year’, ḍanẓrdhoǣmo ‘hunter’, gq̣ünüñtẓ ‘child’, ngcwìðo ‘people’, nxiunun̠ḷ ‘mother’, qḥɶ̀xx̣ ‘father’, qwɞnɞñṛ ‘boy’, rsortoö̉ɺo ‘husband’, rtoʉnʉǹqqhi ‘man’, ṛæ̠vi ‘son’, shihtoỉʈʼo ‘girl’, sihtiaṣthió́ğ̣ ‘farmer’, sobpoö̃no ‘friend’, ṣṭɵ̉hlo ‘human being’, tlhieéq ‘woman’, whiʉnʉn̠kxo ‘daughter’, ṕ̣odoin̄għo ‘neighbour’, ẅoỉɹo ‘wife’.
Class cl.3 – for instance: ngciundhwee̠dḥ ‘urine’, ngoonońvo ‘water’, ngoünüñr̥i ‘inside’, ngxiɞnɞn̄xxi ‘fight’, noàti ‘name’, nqoænæǹṕo ‘colour’, rzihʈoö́ḳ ‘night’, shitwɶ́bo ‘manner’, shoogkiünün̉ẉ̈ ‘breath’, swdtwaa̠hli ‘idea’, thoʉʉzoghwʉ̀ɻi ‘embrace’, ziboʉ̃do ‘surface’, zoħgoárzo ‘chair’, ẓbhiaúṿ ‘table’, ṇ́õṕi ‘bed’, ᵑǁʼióńṛ ‘top’.
Class cl.4 – for instance: goön̄f̣ ‘land’, hloornwȫʡi ‘plain’, qḥónónħiæǹṭ ‘lake’, shogḳóórsodtoæ̉zho ‘mortar’, toeẓgqiòḍ ‘binoculars’, toorsip̣ɵ̠f̣ ‘machine’, tzʼ̣ɞɞziphoö̃rso ‘umbrella’, zhohkoɵ̠ŕi ‘earth’, ziħgwɞ̉chi ‘knife’, þwiẓdwǖrzo ‘net’, ɹounṣhkwańrni ‘mountain’, ᵑǀʼoigḳ̉ni ‘rope’.
Class cl.5 – for instance: djhoʉnðwāṭ ‘liver’, rzirdhoɵnianańrṇ ‘fog’, shithoóó̀ni ‘time’, shoʈʼieṣhkoüǘgki ‘snow’, sitzʼwin̄ṇ ‘cloud’, sokhiarsogqueǹḅ ‘belly’, sokḥeẻŕo ‘rain’, tzhoönöńdto ‘wind’, zhibióó̀li ‘book’, zhirdhiʉʉngoüü̠di ‘student’, ẓdounundtwün̄qo ‘guts’, ẓrtiɞǹni ‘city’, ŕiüńgq̣ ‘heart’.
Class cl.6 – for instance: doeeṕiɶ̠rro ‘neck’, hmoũki ‘hair’, khoɵ́ŕi ‘blood’, lweswhʈiœǹẓ ‘library’, nwaakoiito ‘market’, rdiɞ̉ʡi ‘head’, rsohtwảẉ ‘tooth’, rsoquhün̄kxo ‘house’, rsoṭarzoʉ̠ŕi ‘fat’, rzoḅɞ̀no ‘foot’, shihtoeneñþ̣ ‘leg’, shikhiinzhiħgoaãd͡ʐi ‘vagina’, swɵ̀rsi ‘ear’, tzḥengqwǘrsi ‘anus’, zoḍʉʉ̄gqo ‘back’, zordhianrzoɵñði ‘knee’, ð̣anan̄t͡ʂo ‘nose’, ŋ̥oerzog̣àt͡ʂo ‘religion’, ŋ̥oódjœ̉li ‘penis’, ɥiɶǹni ‘hand’.
Class cl.7 – for instance: ggwenqhiün̠mo ‘jaguar’, nxiɞ̃to ‘animal’, pḥuursihḳóẓ ‘lion’, poaaṣpoónóǹdj ‘tiger’, rthoorzirthiaỉchʼo ‘lamb’, rziḍeẓdwæñqo ‘snake’, r̥̣aħgionońṇ ‘court’, shoaatlhoódẓ ‘worm’, siunħgoɵ̉ħo ‘wild boar’, swhtidzwaāni ‘louse’, ṣqhoanan̄bo ‘cat’, zibp̣ɞɞ́gqo ‘bird’, zwtḥai̠ni ‘fish’, ʈʼoæ̀ṇ ‘dog’, ʛ̣iidhiɵ̀ħo ‘mouse’, βiṣbpiö̀gqo ‘mammal’.
Class cl.8 – for instance: cḥʉnʉñmi ‘language’, hlioīy ‘sound’, nwǜẅi ‘tongue’, pooỉbo ‘egg’, qoòhli ‘sky’, rziàfo ‘meat’, sipḥrzidhwāto ‘cheese’, siqian̠g̣ ‘sun’, tlhiinniɶnɶn̉kxo ‘dialect’, xx̣usodtwɵ̀tzo ‘tower’, zhodiỉði ‘moon’, zidooǹgħo ‘speech’, ᵏǁʼoɶɶ̠ɭo ‘star’.
Class cl.9 – for instance: hṃōng̣ ‘sea’, hœ̀ḷ ‘Hoel’, sihpióshirtiɞ̃þi ‘river’, sihp̣ɵɵzikḥɞnɞn̠ɻo ‘bottle’, soɵɵkouubḥ ‘school’, zidhoozhodhooĩṇ ‘brick’, ẓquhɞɞ́qo ‘fire’, ŋ̥ienenghw̄q ‘box’, ṕoɶɶ̃q ‘stone’.
Class cl.10 – for instance: boaaẓgioñsi ‘salt’, gq̣ʉñɺi ‘north’, honɹ̣āgi ‘ash’, nwoonoiiq ‘money’, piigoʉ́ti ‘dust’, rsogquad͡ʐoāgki ‘sand’, rsohp̣œnœn̄ɥi ‘east’, rsohtwiishiphiöńkx̣ ‘smoke’, viótzoǣtlho ‘ice’, zhobhoinzwgiæ̀gko ‘slime’, zhogiẽṛ́ ‘west’, zidiüǘt͡ʂi ‘south’, zobḥununħgoañði ‘faeces’, ẓdiʉnʉnrṇɞ̃ʈʼi ‘restaurant’.
The Nominal Phrase
Nominal phrases in Hoel can be exemplified by the following example:
Zwħgiuto chotzʼo rsorthiænæntlhieéq zwħgiuto ṣqwɞɞziħgwɞ̉chi rsotiunnwin̠vo shiɵħgi ðiüñþ̣ qhwǘzho xoɵnɵñfoiiɭi tzʼ̣ænænqqḥiidhiɵ̀ħo zibpouẅo chʼiʉgko rsodtwʉʉrsi zobp̣ónón̠fi. [zʷɢʲutˠ ᵏǀʰˠᵊt͡sʼˠ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtɬʲeː꜖꜒ʔ zʷɢʲutˠ sˤqʷɞːzʲɢʷɞ̰꜖χʲ ʂˠt̪ʲũnʷĩ꜖vˠ ʃʲɵɢʲ ðʲỹ̰꜒θˤ ʁʷy꜖꜒ʒˠ ᵏǁˠɵ̃ː̰꜒fˠiːɭʲ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːq͡χˤiːdʱʲɵ꜒꜖ħˠ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ ʂˠtʼʷʉːʂʲ zˠpʼˤõː꜖fʲ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ᵏǀʰˠᵊt͡sʼˠ ERG ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 tɬʲeː꜖꜒ʔ woman zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing sˤqʷɞːʐʲd̪ˠ- cl.4 zʲɢʷɞ̰꜖χʲ knife ʂˠt̪ʲũnʷĩ꜖vˠ COMIT ʃʲɵɢʲ no.owner.plur ðʲỹ̰꜒θˤ yon ʁʷy꜖꜒ʒˠ three ᵏǁˠɵ̃ː̰꜒sˠ blind -p͡fˠiːɭʲ cl.7 t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 ʛˤiːdʱʲɵ꜒꜖ħˠ mouse zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ 3.sing.cl.2.POS.active ʂˠtʼʷʉːʂʲ 3.plur.cl.7.OBJ zˠpʼˤõː꜖fʲ catch “The woman with the knife caught those three blind mice.” | (1) |
In the following, we shall look at the various components in more details.
All nominal phrase clitics in Hoel are proclitics (placed initially, and there are two types: a clitic expressing case, comprising chotzʼo /ᵏǀʰˠᵊt͡sʼˠ/ ‘ERG’, zhortianrsi /ʒˠʈʲa#ʂʲ/ ‘ACC’, hp̣óng̣ /hpˤo#ɡˤ/ ‘GEN’, rzoquhɞshi /ʐˠkʰʷɞʃʲ/ ‘DAT’, shihp̣anɺo /ʃʲhpˤa#ɺˠ/ ‘INS’, khoóği /kʰˠoɣʲ/ ‘VOC’, ṃææni /mˤɛːnʲ/ ‘ALL’, khoɵɵgko /kʰˠɵːkʼˠ/ ‘LOC’, ẓgḳæṭ /zˤkʼˤɛtˤ/ ‘ABL’ and rzobpiʉnso /ʐˠpʼʲʉ#sˠ/ ‘PART’ followed by a clitic expressing possessor.number, comprising ɭiædzo /ɭʲɛd͡zˠ/ ‘1incl.sing.sing’, borzo /bˠᵊʐˠ/ ‘1incl.sing.dual’, qhoanṕi /qʰˠa#p͡fʲ/ ‘1incl.sing.plur’, ʡoɞɥ̣ /ʡˠɞɥˤ/ ‘1excl.sing.sing’, rsiqwikxi /ʂʲqʷik͡xʲ/ ‘1excl.sing.dual’, ᵑǃʼ̣enpi /ᵑǃʼˤe#pʲ/ ‘1excl.sing.plur’, tzʼwónqo /t͡sʼʷo#qˠ/ ‘2.sing.sing’, zoóxxi /zˠoxʲ/ ‘2.sing.dual’, ŋ̥iɞɞli /ŋ̥ʲɞːlʲ/ ‘2.sing.plur’, shigq̣ubḥ /ʃʲqʼˤubʱˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.1.sing’, ɳ̥oɵɭo /ɳ̥ˠɵɭˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.1.dual’, rṇuŕi /ɴˤurʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.1.plur’, nqoʉli /ᵑǃˠʉlʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.2.sing’, nwiiɥ̣ /n̪ʷiːɥˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.2.dual’, zhodtiaaɹ̣ /ʒˠtʼʲaːɹˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.2.plur’, ṣqiongqi /sˤqʲɔ#qʼʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.3.sing’, rsobpiærno /ʂˠpʼʲɛɴˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.3.dual’, dtoælo /tʼˠɛl̪ˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.3.plur’, kxiarro /k͡xʲaɽˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.4.sing’, swʉd͡ʐo /sʷʉd͡ʐˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.4.dual’, dhiæğ̣ /dʱʲɛɣˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.4.plur’, ghieği /ɡʱʲeɣʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.5.sing’, qḥinindo /ᵏǃʰˤi#ːd̪ˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.5.dual’, rsihkoḍ /ʂʲhkˠᵊd̪ˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.5.plur’, zwtoeeqho /zʷtˠeːʁˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.6.sing’, nciununkxi /ᵑǀʲu#ːk͡xʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.6.dual’, rsogkoaatzi /ʂˠkʼˠaːt͡sʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.6.plur’, rziónónzhi /ʐʲo#ːʒʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.7.sing’, twʉʉr̥o /tʷʉːr̥ˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.7.dual’, zidtwææħgo /zʲtʼʷɛːɢˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.7.plur’, p̣ætzʼi /pˤɛt͡sʼʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.8.sing’, rniinɺi /ɳʲi#ɺʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.8.dual’, ẓdḥedẓ /zˤdʱˤed͡zˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.8.plur’, rsiʈʼoito /ʂʲʈʼˠitˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.9.sing’, rzibḥórto /ʐʲbʱˤoʈˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.9.dual’, quondḥ /kʷɔ#dʱˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.9.plur’, sipḥrdo /sʲpʰˤᵊɖˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.10.sing’, ᵏǃ̣anantlhi /ᵏǃˤa#ːtɬʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.10.dual’, sihṭææy /sʲhtˤɛːj/ ‘3.sing.cl.10.plur’, ᵑǃʼ̣æjho /ᵑǃʼˤɛd͡ʒʱˠ/ ‘1incl.dual.sing’, jjiħg̣ /ʄʲᵊɢˤ/ ‘1incl.dual.dual’, chʼióxx̣ /t͡ʃʼʲoxˤ/ ‘1incl.dual.plur’, djaʈʼi /t͡ʃaʈʼʲ/ ‘1excl.dual.sing’, dhiɞnẅo /dʱʲɞ#ɰˠ/ ‘1excl.dual.dual’, rsigḳónóngqo /ʂʲkʼˤo#ːqʼˠ/ ‘1excl.dual.plur’, sigquaaħo /sʲkʼʷaːħˠ/ ‘2.dual.sing’, rsokhiærzi /ʂˠkʰʲɛʐʲ/ ‘2.dual.dual’, ðwæħi /ðʷɛħʲ/ ‘2.dual.plur’, ngqwʉnqḥ /ᵑǃʱʷʉ#ʁˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.1.sing’, rtiq̣ /ʈʲᵊqˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.1.dual’, d͡ʐiohlo /d͡ʐʲɔɮˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.1.plur’, shoqhwedi /ʃˠqʰʷed̪ʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.2.sing’, ńiixxo /n̥ʲixˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.2.dual’, nxounung̣ /ᵑǁˠu#ːɡˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.2.plur’, bpoɵrzo /pʼˠɵʐˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.3.sing’, ᵑǁʼiooxx̣ /ᵑǁʼʲɔːxˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.3.dual’, chʼiʉɺo /t͡ʃʼʲʉɺˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.3.plur’, swhʈiɞgo /sʷhʈʲɞɡˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.4.sing’, ğwɵɵgq̣ /ɣʷɵːqʼˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.4.dual’, gḳænf̣ /kʼˤɛ#fˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.4.plur’, zwħgianro /zʷɢʲa#ɾˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.5.sing’, sirtoænænṣ /sʲʈˠɛ#ːsˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.5.dual’, ngoæso /ŋˠɛsˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.5.plur’, swḳiipo /sʷkˤiːpˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.6.sing’, khoʉþo /kʰˠʉθˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.6.dual’, ṕoooli /p͡fˠɔːl̪ʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.6.plur’, doææʡo /d̪ˠɛːʡˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.7.sing’, sop̣ugko /sˠpˤukʼˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.7.dual’, piʉnʉnði /pʲʉ#ːðʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.7.plur’, shiooto /ʃʲɔːtˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.8.sing’, ṃʉpi /mˤʉpʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.8.dual’, swhpoɞḍ /sʷhpˠɞdˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.8.plur’, rzohpoonso /ʐˠhpˠɔ#sˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.9.sing’, qieŕi /qʲerʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.9.dual’, ngxoʉbp̣ /ᵑǁʱˠʉpʼˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.9.plur’, rsoæægq̣ /ʂˠɛːqʼˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.10.sing’, zhidweṭ /ʒʲd̪ʷetˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.10.dual’, rsoṭɵɵni /ʂˠt̪ˤɵːn̪ʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.10.plur’, chʼiɵħi /t͡ʃʼʲɵħʲ/ ‘1incl.plur.sing’, tiuṛ /t̪ʲuɾˤ/ ‘1incl.plur.dual’, ẓgqoaatlho /zˤqʼˠaːtɬˠ/ ‘1incl.plur.plur’, rtiononṛ́ /ʈʲɔ#ːrˤ/ ‘1excl.plur.sing’, zhiqhwahli /ʒʲqʰʷaɮʲ/ ‘1excl.plur.dual’, hʈouuko /hʈˠuːkˠ/ ‘1excl.plur.plur’, ngwigo /ŋʷiɡˠ/ ‘2.plur.sing’, zhihḳóti /ʒʲhkˤot̪ʲ/ ‘2.plur.dual’, rsiphoobp̣ /ʂʲpʰˠɔpʼˤ/ ‘2.plur.plur’, βoenenngo /βˠe#ːŋˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.1.sing’, nxiɵrti /ᵑǁʲɵʈʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.1.dual’, ɥoununr̥̣ /ɥˠu#ːr̥ˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.1.plur’, zhouẓ /ʒˠuzˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.2.sing’, gc̣óṃ /ᶢǀˤomˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.2.dual’, qoɵnɵngħi /qˠɵ#ːʕʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.2.plur’, boʉḍ /bˠʉdˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.3.sing’, gqiæḅ /qʼʲɛbˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.3.dual’, djhiɞnɞnng̣ /t͡ʃʰʲɞ#ːŋˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.3.plur’, zhigkoinr̥̣ /ʒʲkʼˠi#r̥ˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.4.sing’, sitḥusho /sʲtʰˤuʃˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.4.dual’, ńwædi /n̥ʷɛdʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.4.plur’, tlhiununy /tɬʲu#ːj/ ‘3.plur.cl.5.sing’, yuq̣ /juqˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.5.dual’, wienɹi /ʋʲe#ɹʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.5.plur’, kxwinħi /k͡xʷi#ħʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.6.sing’, ɭiiʈʼo /ɭʲiʈʼˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.6.dual’, siquhiiḅ /sʲkʰʷiːbˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.6.plur’, ᵑǃʼiirdi /ᵑǃʼʲiɖʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.7.sing’, bp̣ɵtzʼ̣ /pʼˤɵt͡sʼˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.7.dual’, zoboʉgħo /zˠbˠʉʕˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.7.plur’, sop̣óɹi /sˠpˤoɹʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.8.sing’, dzwoordhi /d͡zʷɔːɖʱʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.8.dual’, sotoaaħo /sˠt̪ˠaːħˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.8.plur’, ẓrthiṇ /zˤʈʰʲᵊnˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.9.sing’, giuudzi /ɡʲuːd͡zʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.9.dual’, r̥wónngi /r̥ʷo#ŋʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.9.plur’, cḥɵnghi /χˤɵ#ɡʱʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.10.sing’, tzwipo /t͡sʷipˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.10.dual’, ɻiæfo /ɻʲɛfˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.10.plur’, zwħgiuto /zʷɢʲutˠ/ ‘no.owner.sing’, għieng̣ /ʕʲeŋˤ/ ‘no.owner.dual’ and shiɵħgi /ʃʲɵɢʲ/ ‘no.owner.plur’.
The morphology of the elements of the nominal phrase, i.e., nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns, is described below, as is the way that possession is expressed in Hoel.
The Noun
The noun in Hoel consists of an optional prefix expressing gender, comprising ʡoici- /ʡˠiᵏǀʲ-/ ‘cl.1’, rsorthiænændto- /ʂˠʈʰʲɛ#ːtʼˠ-/ ‘cl.2’, shionngq̣- /ʃʲɔ#ᵑǃʱˤ-/ ‘cl.3’, ṣqwɞɞrzido- /sˤqʷɞːʐʲd̪ˠ-/ ‘cl.4’, ẓrtoashitḥ- /zˤʈˠaʃʲtʰˤ-/ ‘cl.5’, p̣shohṭ- /pˤᵊʃˠhtˤ-/ ‘cl.6’, tzʼ̣ænændzi- /t͡sʼˤɛ#ːd͡zʲ-/ ‘cl.7’, dẓosipḥ- /d͡zˤɔsʲpʰˤ-/ ‘cl.8’, zoṭonẓg̣- /zˠt̪ˤɔ#zˤɡˤ-/ ‘cl.9’ and rsokḥasikhi- /ʂˠkʰˤasʲkʰʲ-/ ‘cl.10’ followed by the root.
The noun displays the following derivational morphology: 39 prefixes, namely rzoquaar̥o- /ʐˠkʷaːr̥ˠ-/ ‘little’, tzhidw- /t͡sʰʲᵊd̪ʷ-/ ‘big’, zobp̣rsoquh- /zˠpʼˤᵊʂˠkʰʷ-/ ‘old’, ḍununxx̣- /dˤu#ːxˤ-/ ‘new’, qqhiʉqu- /q͡χʲʉkʷ-/ ‘good’, ʛ̣anshitw- /ʛˤa#ʃʲt̪ʷ-/ ‘bad’, rsopoʉzokḥ- /ʂˠpˠʉzˠkʰˤ-/ ‘make’, rsobpiononpḥ- /ʂˠpʼʲɔ#ːpʰˤ-/ ‘help’, dzienenzhigho- /d͡zʲe#ːʒʲɡʱˠ-/ ‘have’, ẉiidzo- /ʋˤiːd͡zˠ-/ ‘use’, rzibhoenenᵏǃʼw- /ʐʲbʱˠe#ːᵏǃʼʷ-/ ‘see’, zwgkiunsho- /zʷkʼʲu#ʃˠ-/ ‘break’, ghwanqw- /ɡʱʷaᵑǃʷ-/ ‘eat’, ngxiiiṣki- /ᵑǁʱʲiːsˤkʲ-/ ‘drink’, ḍɵnzigqo- /dˤɵ#zʲqʼˠ-/ ‘wear’, þougco- /θˠuᶢǀˠ-/ ‘own’, rzoḍenenḷ- /ʐˠdˤe#ːl̪ˤ-/ ‘contain’, shogqoʉᵏǁʼi- /ʃˠqʼˠʉᵏǁʼʲ-/ ‘hold’, kxwiini- /k͡xʷiːnʲ-/ ‘lack’, ᵑǁʼoɞḳ- /ᵑǁʼˠɞkˤ-/ ‘touch’, hʈiusi- /hʈʲusʲ-/ ‘carry’, shogkiaphi- /ʃˠkʼʲapʰʲ-/ ‘find’, zibhoɵɵziqho- /zʲbʱˠɵːzʲqʰˠ-/ ‘hunt’, shihkoananrsikho- /ʃʲhkˠa#ːʂʲkʰˠ-/ ‘guard’, rzog̣ɞzwthi- /ʐˠɡˤɞzʷtʰʲ-/ ‘search’, gciɵħi- /ᶢǀʲɵħʲ-/ ‘learn’, rsoquhubhi- /ʂˠkʰʷubʱʲ-/ ‘teach’, htoanqhi- /htˠa#ʁʲ-/ ‘follow’, sigqiitlhi- /sʲqʼʲitɬʲ-/ ‘chase’, ṣṭununrro- /sˤt̪ˤu#ːɽˠ-/ ‘build’, ʛiɞnɞnɺi- /ʛʲɞ#ːɺʲ-/ ‘burn’, djhoiizhorti- /t͡ʃʰˠiːʒˠʈʲ-/ ‘hit’, phieβo- /pʰʲeβˠ-/ ‘take’, ṣtoagi- /sˤt̪ˠaɡʲ-/ ‘cut’, ṇɵngq̣- /nˤɵᵑǃʱˤ-/ ‘hear’, qoʉnpo- /qˠʉ#pˠ-/ ‘know’, xxoónzhip̣- /xˠo#ʒʲpˤ-/ ‘love’, d͡ʐooozobi- /d͡ʐˠɔːzˠbʲ-/ ‘protect’ and rsohtiaq- /ʂˠhtʲaʔ-/ ‘possess’
The Adjective
In Hoel, the adjective has the following structure: the root followed by an optional suffix expressing gender, comprising -niongki /-n̪ʲɔ#kʼʲ/ ‘cl.1’, -ɻiungi /-ɻʲuŋʲ/ ‘cl.2’, -ẉesi /-ʋˤesʲ/ ‘cl.3’, -t͡ʂiaq̣ /-t͡ʂʲaqˤ/ ‘cl.4’, -dtióóɥi /-tʼʲoːɥʲ/ ‘cl.5’, -ɻiʉʉṣ /-ɻʲʉːsˤ/ ‘cl.6’, -ṕoiiɭi /-p͡fˠiːɭʲ/ ‘cl.7’, -bpiininqqḥ /-pʼʲi#ːq͡χˤ/ ‘cl.8’, -zoananẉ̈ /-zˠa#ːɰˤ/ ‘cl.9’ and -qqḥutlho /-q͡χˤutɬˠ/ ‘cl.10’.
Numerals
The numeral in Hoel stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.
Determiners
The determiner in Hoel stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.
Pronouns
The pronoun in Hoel stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.
In Hoel, both subject and object pronouns are dropped unless they are stressed. Here is an example where neither of the pronouns are stressed:
Chʼiʉgko xxoónshihtoỉʈʼo. [t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ xˠõʃʲhtˠḭ꜖ʈʼˠ] t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ 3.sing.cl.2.POS.active xˠõʒʲpˤ- love ʃʲhtˠḭ꜖ʈʼˠ girl “He (the boy) loves her (the girl).” | (2) |
But here, the word corresponding to he is stressed:
Zwħgiuto soʈʼiœ́bḥ chʼiʉgko xxoónshihtoỉʈʼo. [zʷɢʲutˠ sˠʈʼʲœ꜖꜒bʱˤ t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ xˠõʃʲhtˠḭ꜖ʈʼˠ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing sˠʈʼʲœ꜖꜒bʱˤ 3.sing.cl.2 t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ 3.sing.cl.2.POS.active xˠõʒʲpˤ- love ʃʲhtˠḭ꜖ʈʼˠ girl “He loves her.” | (3) |
And here, it is the one translated as her that is stressed:
Chʼiʉgko xxoónshihtoỉʈʼo. [t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ xˠõʃʲhtˠḭ꜖ʈʼˠ] t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ 3.sing.cl.2.POS.active xˠõʒʲpˤ- love ʃʲhtˠḭ꜖ʈʼˠ girl “He loves her.” | (4) |
Proper Nouns
Zwħgiuto rsorthiænændtoZwgiinṛ́ɶ̠ṛ́ zwħgiuto zhortianrsi rsorthiænændtoShoquhæswqhoɵnɵǹrṇ chʼiʉgko gc̣ɵdzi rtoorzoɞ̠so. [zʷɢʲutˠ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠzʷɡʲĩrˤɶ꜖rˤ zʷɢʲutˠ ʒˠʈʲãʂʲ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠʃˠkʰʷɛsʷqʰˠɵ̃ː꜒꜖ɴˤ t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ ᶢǀˤɵd͡zʲ ʈˠɔʐˠɞ꜖sˠ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 zʷɡʲĩrˤɶ꜖rˤ Zgirr zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʒˠʈʲãʂʲ ACC ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 ʃˠkʰʷɛsʷqʰˠɵ̃ː꜒꜖ɴˤ Sahkesq t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ 3.sing.cl.2.POS.active ᶢǀˤɵd͡zʲ 3.sing.cl.2.OBJ ʈˠɔʐˠɞ꜖sˠ hate “Zgirr hates Sahkesq.” | (5) |
Possession
zwħgiuto rsorthiænænqwɞnɞñṛ nqoʉli ʡoishikiʉʉhp̣éngo [zʷɢʲutˠ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːqʷɞ̃ː̰꜒ɾˤ ᵑǃˠʉlʲ ʡˠiʃʲkʲʉːhpˤe꜖꜒ŋˠ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 qʷɞ̃ː̰꜒ɾˤ boy ᵑǃˠʉlʲ 3.sing.cl.2.sing ʡˠiᵏǀʲ- cl.1 ʃʲkʲʉːhpˤe꜖꜒ŋˠ apple “the boy’s apple” | (6) |
zwħgiuto soʈʼiœ́bḥ nqoʉli ʡoishikiʉʉhp̣éngo [zʷɢʲutˠ sˠʈʼʲœ꜖꜒bʱˤ ᵑǃˠʉlʲ ʡˠiʃʲkʲʉːhpˤe꜖꜒ŋˠ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing sˠʈʼʲœ꜖꜒bʱˤ 3.sing.cl.2 ᵑǃˠʉlʲ 3.sing.cl.2.sing ʡˠiᵏǀʲ- cl.1 ʃʲkʲʉːhpˤe꜖꜒ŋˠ apple “his (the boy’s) apple” | (7) |
ʡoɞɥ̣ ʡoishikiʉʉhp̣éngo [ʡˠɞɥˤ ʡˠiʃʲkʲʉːhpˤe꜖꜒ŋˠ] ʡˠɞɥˤ 1excl.sing.sing ʡˠiᵏǀʲ- cl.1 ʃʲkʲʉːhpˤe꜖꜒ŋˠ apple “my apple” | (8) |
Zwħgiuto chotzʼo zwħgiuto rsorthiænænḍanẓrdhoǣmo nqoʉli rsorthiænændtowhiʉnʉn̠kxo zwħgiuto tzʼwónqo rsorthiænænṕ̣odoin̄għo nqoʉli rsorthiænændtoṛæ̠vi zibpouẅo chʼiʉgko gc̣ɵdzi ħoózhoq̣iniǹni. [zʷɢʲutˠ ᵏǀʰˠᵊt͡sʼˠ zʷɢʲutˠ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːdˤãzˤɖʱˠɛ꜒mˠ ᵑǃˠʉlʲ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠɸʲʉ̃ː꜖k͡xˠ zʷɢʲutˠ t͡sʼʷõqˠ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːp͡fˤɔd̪ˠĩ꜒ʕˠ ᵑǃˠʉlʲ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠɾˤɛ꜖vʲ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ ᶢǀˤɵd͡zʲ ħˠoʒˠqˤĩː꜒꜖n̪ʲ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ᵏǀʰˠᵊt͡sʼˠ ERG zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 dˤãzˤɖʱˠɛ꜒mˠ hunter ᵑǃˠʉlʲ 3.sing.cl.2.sing ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 ɸʲʉ̃ː꜖k͡xˠ daughter zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing t͡sʼʷõqˠ 2.sing.sing ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 p͡fˤɔd̪ˠĩ꜒ʕˠ neighbour ᵑǃˠʉlʲ 3.sing.cl.2.sing ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 ɾˤɛ꜖vʲ son zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ 3.sing.cl.2.POS.active ᶢǀˤɵd͡zʲ 3.sing.cl.2.OBJ ħˠoʒˠqˤĩː꜒꜖n̪ʲ kiss “The hunter’s daughter kissed your neighbour’s son.” | (9) |
Derivation
zwħgiuto għoó̃ṣ tzʼ̣ænænd͡ʐoorzirthiaỉchʼo [zʷɢʲutˠ ʕˠo̰꜒sˤ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡ʐˠɔʐʲʈʰʲaḭ꜖t͡ʃʼˠ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʕˠo̰꜒sˤ a t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 ʈʰˠɔʐʲʈʰʲaḭ꜖t͡ʃʼˠ lamb “a lamb” | (10) |
zwħgiuto għoó̃ṣ tzʼ̣ænændziaarroorzirthiaỉchʼo [zʷɢʲutˠ ʕˠo̰꜒sˤ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲaːɽˠɔʐʲʈʰʲaḭ꜖t͡ʃʼˠ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʕˠo̰꜒sˤ a t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 ʐˠkʷaːr̥ˠ- little ʈʰˠɔʐʲʈʰʲaḭ꜖t͡ʃʼˠ lamb “a little lamb” | (11) |
Zwħgiuto għoó̃ṣ tzʼ̣ænændziaarroorzirthiaỉchʼo zibpouẅo chʼiʉgko giiqho hʈoẻngi. [zʷɢʲutˠ ʕˠo̰꜒sˤ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲaːɽˠɔʐʲʈʰʲaḭ꜖t͡ʃʼˠ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ ɡʲiʁˠ hʈˠḛ꜖ŋʲ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʕˠo̰꜒sˤ a t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 ʐˠkʷaːr̥ˠ- little ʈʰˠɔʐʲʈʰʲaḭ꜖t͡ʃʼˠ lamb zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ 3.sing.cl.2.POS.active ɡʲiʁˠ 3.sing.cl.7.OBJ hʈˠḛ꜖ŋʲ have “She had a little lamb.” | (12) |
Zibpouẅo chʼiʉgko qhohʈoẻngi. [zʲpʼˠuɰˠ t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ ʁˠᵊhʈˠḛ꜖ŋʲ] zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ 3.sing.cl.2.POS.active ʁˠᵊzˠdʱʲ- want hʈˠḛ꜖ŋʲ have “She wanted to have a little lamb.” | (13) |
Zwħgiuto ṣqiongqi għoó̃ṣ tzʼ̣ænændziaarroorzirthiaỉchʼo zwħgiuto hp̣óng̣ zibpouẅo hʈoẻngi zibpouẅo chʼiʉgko dziinzo rtiaĩṇ ᵑǀʼoɵnɵn̠zo. [zʷɢʲutˠ sˤqʲɔ̃qʼʲ ʕˠo̰꜒sˤ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲaːɽˠɔʐʲʈʰʲaḭ꜖t͡ʃʼˠ zʷɢʲutˠ hpˤõɡˤ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ hʈˠḛ꜖ŋʲ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ d͡zʲĩzˠ ʈʲaḭ꜒nˤ ᵑǀʼˠɵ̃ː꜖zˠ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing sˤqʲɔ̃qʼʲ 3.sing.cl.3.sing ʕˠo̰꜒sˤ a t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 ʐˠkʷaːr̥ˠ- little ʈʰˠɔʐʲʈʰʲaḭ꜖t͡ʃʼˠ lamb zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing hpˤõɡˤ GEN zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST hʈˠḛ꜖ŋʲ have zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ 3.sing.cl.2.POS.active d͡zʲĩzˠ 3.sing.cl.3.OBJ ʈʲaḭ꜒nˤ want ᵑǀʼˠɵ̃ː꜖zˠ often “She often wanted to have a little lamb.” | (14) |
Zwħgiuto zhortianrsi zwħgiuto ṣqiongqi soʈʼiœ́bḥ zwħgiuto zwħgiuto ṣqiongqi għoó̃ṣ tzʼ̣ænændziaarroorzirthiaỉchʼo zwħgiuto hp̣óng̣ zibpouẅo hʈoẻngi zibpouẅo dziinzo rtiaĩṇ ᵑǀʼoɵnɵn̠zo zibpouẅo dziinzo nwʉ́ng̣ rzihpiazho dziinzo goun̄ngi? [zʷɢʲutˠ ʒˠʈʲãʂʲ zʷɢʲutˠ sˤqʲɔ̃qʼʲ sˠʈʼʲœ꜖꜒bʱˤ zʷɢʲutˠ zʷɢʲutˠ sˤqʲɔ̃qʼʲ ʕˠo̰꜒sˤ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲaːɽˠɔʐʲʈʰʲaḭ꜖t͡ʃʼˠ zʷɢʲutˠ hpˤõɡˤ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ hʈˠḛ꜖ŋʲ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ d͡zʲĩzˠ ʈʲaḭ꜒nˤ ᵑǀʼˠɵ̃ː꜖zˠ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ d͡zʲĩzˠ n̪ʷʉ꜖꜒ŋˤ ʐʲhpʲaʒˠ d͡zʲĩzˠ ɡˠũ꜒ŋʲ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʒˠʈʲãʂʲ ACC zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing sˤqʲɔ̃qʼʲ 3.sing.cl.3.sing sˠʈʼʲœ꜖꜒bʱˤ 3.sing.cl.2 zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing sˤqʲɔ̃qʼʲ 3.sing.cl.3.sing ʕˠo̰꜒sˤ a t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 ʐˠkʷaːr̥ˠ- little ʈʰˠɔʐʲʈʰʲaḭ꜖t͡ʃʼˠ lamb zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing hpˤõɡˤ GEN zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST hʈˠḛ꜖ŋʲ have zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST d͡zʲĩzˠ 3.sing.cl.3.OBJ ʈʲaḭ꜒nˤ want ᵑǀʼˠɵ̃ː꜖zˠ often zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST d͡zʲĩzˠ 3.sing.cl.3.OBJ n̪ʷʉ꜖꜒ŋˤ think ʐʲhpʲaʒˠ 2.sing.NEG.active d͡zʲĩzˠ 3.sing.cl.3.OBJ ɡˠũ꜒ŋʲ be “Are you not one of those who thought that she often wanted to have a little lamb?” | (15) |
Compounding
Verbs
Inflectional Categories
The verbal phrase clitics in Hoel fall into two categories, proclitics and enclitics: first, a clitic expressing indobj, comprising ħħoiito /ʜˠiːt̪ˠ/ ‘1incl.sing’, koaaɻi /kˠaːɻʲ/ ‘1excl.sing’, zhitoano /ʒʲt̪ˠanˠ/ ‘2.sing’, r̥wexxo /r̥ʷexˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.1’, thiagko /tʰʲakʼˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.2’, ᵏǃʼ̣ɞɹ̣ /ᵏǃʼˤɞɹˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.3’, ṭodo /tˤɔdˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.4’, ħgwɵnli /ɢʷɵ#l̪ʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.5’, boenr̥i /bˠe#r̥ʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.6’, shiqwʉʉvo /ʃʲqʷʉːvˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.7’, ghoɞxxi /ɡʱˠɞxʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.8’, ħiako /ħʲakˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.9’, zotḥunr̥̣ /zˠtʰˤu#r̥ˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.10’, ńoonondẓ /n̥ˠɔ#ːd͡zˤ/ ‘1incl.dual’, qḥænħħo /ʁˤɛ#ʜˠ/ ‘1excl.dual’, rthiɵnsi /ʈʰʲɵ#sʲ/ ‘2.dual’, tzhwóbo /t͡sʰʷobˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.1’, rzogwæjhi /ʐˠɡʷɛd͡ʒʱʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.2’, biootzʼ̣ /bʲɔːt͡sʼˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.3’, rsiphoóngħi /ʂʲpʰˠo#ʕʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.4’, ghwiifo /ɡʱʷiːfˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.5’, zwpḥoʈʼo /zʷpʰˤɔʈʼˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.6’, qhiiro /ᵏǃʰʲiɾˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.7’, hṃiṣ /m̥ˤisˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.8’, rsiqḥɵdẓ /ʂʲqʰˤɵd͡zˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.9’, dtiænʈʼo /tʼʲɛ#ʈʼˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.10’, dtwiiṕ̣ /tʼʷiːp͡fˤ/ ‘1incl.plur’, ɹ̣no /ɹˤᵊnˠ/ ‘1excl.plur’, ẓkhiæẉ /zˤkʰʲɛʋˤ/ ‘2.plur’, ẓdhwóódti /zˤdʱʷoːtʼʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.1’, ħħoɞzo /ʜˠɞzˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.2’, biænf̣ /bʲɛ#fˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.3’, htianandḥ /htʲa#ːdʱˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.4’, ğ̣aaŕi /ɣˤaːrʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.5’, ᵏǀʼwatzʼ̣ /ᵏǀʼʷat͡sʼˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.6’, rsodṭegko /ʂˠtʼˤekʼˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.7’, dtiʉni /tʼʲʉnʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.8’, diumi /d̪ʲumʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.9’ and ħionḳ /ħʲɔ#kˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.10’; second, a clitic expressing obj, comprising djhiɞrro /t͡ʃʰʲɞɽˠ/ ‘1incl.sing’, dḥæʈʼo /dʱˤɛʈʼˠ/ ‘1excl.sing’, woiwhi /ʋˠiɸʲ/ ‘2.sing’, sibpiægḥ /sʲpʼʲɛɡʱˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.1’, gc̣ɵdzi /ᶢǀˤɵd͡zʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.2’, dziinzo /d͡zʲi#zˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.3’, hliónónxx̣ /ɮʲo#ːxˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.4’, rsihṭóóni /ʂʲhtˤoːnʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.5’, ngcweesho /ᵑǀʱʷeːʃˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.6’, giiqho /ɡʲiʁˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.7’, ɭoɞnṕ̣ /ɭˠɞ#p͡fˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.8’, ʈʼoónno /ʈʼˠo#n̪ˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.9’, shidtiaβo /ʃʲtʼʲaβˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.10’, shibpiinrni /ʃʲpʼʲi#ɴʲ/ ‘1incl.dual’, shoquadzo /ʃˠkʷad͡zˠ/ ‘1excl.dual’, rsibp̣óóħi /ʂʲpʼˤoːħʲ/ ‘2.dual’, βirso /βʲᵊʂˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.1’, ṕiɵnwḥ /p͡fʲɵ#ɸˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.2’, dtoeħg̣ /tʼˠeɢˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.3’, þwɵdti /θʷɵtʼʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.4’, rziɵṛ́ /ʐʲɵrˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.5’, rziqḥɵɵhli /ʐʲqʰˤɵːɬʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.6’, gquerzi /kʼʷeʐʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.7’, rsopḥenβ̣ /ʂˠpʰˤe#βˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.8’, ğwagħo /ɣʷaʕˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.9’, siqhwḷ /sʲqʰʷᵊl̪ˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.10’, ddoʉbhi /ɗˠʉbʱʲ/ ‘1incl.plur’, nq̣óðo /ᵑǃˤoðˠ/ ‘1excl.plur’, swʉnrrho /sʷʉ#ɽʱˠ/ ‘2.plur’, rziḍɥi /ʐʲd̪ˤᵊɥʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.1’, għieeṛ́ /ʕʲeːrˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.2’, swhḳegqo /sʷhkˤeqʼˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.3’, woɞnṇ /ʋˠɞ#nˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.4’, gq̣inli /qʼˤi#l̪ʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.5’, ṣʈʼiuli /sˤʈʼʲulʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.6’, rsodtwʉʉrsi /ʂˠtʼʷʉːʂʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.7’, ẓhṭininbi /zˤhtˤi#ːbʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.8’, ṃininħo /mˤi#ːħˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.9’ and zhobp̣id͡ʐo /ʒˠpʼˤid͡ʐˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.10’; third, a clitic expressing subj.negation.voice, comprising siqwɵntzi /sʲqʷɵ#t͡sʲ/ ‘1incl.sing.NEG.active’, ðoerso /ðˠeʂˠ/ ‘1incl.sing.NEG.passive’, ᵏǃʼ̣ashi /ᵏǃʼˤaʃʲ/ ‘1incl.sing.POS.active’, jjoaħgi /ʄˠaɢʲ/ ‘1incl.sing.POS.passive’, whiinlo /ɸʲi#lˠ/ ‘1excl.sing.NEG.active’, ðiɞþ̣ /ðʲɞθˤ/ ‘1excl.sing.NEG.passive’, gcwæɹo /ᶢǀʷɛɹˠ/ ‘1excl.sing.POS.active’, tiɵnɵndzo /t̪ʲɵ#ːd͡zˠ/ ‘1excl.sing.POS.passive’, rzihpiazho /ʐʲhpʲaʒˠ/ ‘2.sing.NEG.active’, swṭɵṃ /sʷt̪ˤɵmˤ/ ‘2.sing.NEG.passive’, choanno /ᵏǀʰˠa#nˠ/ ‘2.sing.POS.active’, rzohkiænfo /ʐˠhkʲɛ#fˠ/ ‘2.sing.POS.passive’, rsohpoʉkxi /ʂˠhpˠʉk͡xʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.1.NEG.active’, r̥oaf̣ /r̥ˠafˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.1.NEG.passive’, ḳananŕi /kˤa#ːrʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.1.POS.active’, zwdtiɞntlho /zʷtʼʲɞ#tɬˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.1.POS.passive’, tzʼoaẅi /t͡sʼˠaɰʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.2.NEG.active’, tzhiɞɞro /t͡sʰʲɞːɾˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.2.NEG.passive’, chʼiʉgko /t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.2.POS.active’, ɭióógḥ /ɭʲoːɡʱˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.2.POS.passive’, htwaxx̣ /htʷaxˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.3.NEG.active’, ṣthieeṭ /sˤtʰʲeːtˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.3.NEG.passive’, qḥiþ̣ /qʰˤiθˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.3.POS.active’, rsihtiado /ʂʲhtʲadˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.3.POS.passive’, hloenqhi /ɬˠe#ʁʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.4.NEG.active’, swɞnno /sʷɞ#nˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.4.NEG.passive’, chʼiihlo /t͡ʃʼʲiɮˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.4.POS.active’, hḳooŕo /hkˤɔːrˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.4.POS.passive’, dhióngi /dʱʲoŋʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.5.NEG.active’, hkiehli /hkʲeɬʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.5.NEG.passive’, ṣpoanhli /sˤpˠa#ɮʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.5.POS.active’, bpiɵɵbho /pʼʲɵːbʱˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.5.POS.passive’, ṣtoongi /sˤtˠɔ#ɡʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.6.NEG.active’, rniɞt͡ʂi /ɴʲɞt͡ʂʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.6.NEG.passive’, ngxicho /ᵑǁʱʲᵊχˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.6.POS.active’, ṭuṃ /tˤumˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.6.POS.passive’, zhordioorto /ʒˠɖʲɔːʈˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.7.NEG.active’, ẓɞnɞnʈʼi /zˤɞ#ːʈʼʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.7.NEG.passive’, hliodo /ɮʲɔd̪ˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.7.POS.active’, hʈoarno /hʈˠaɴˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.7.POS.passive’, niaaɥi /nʲaːɥʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.8.NEG.active’, rsihṭódto /ʂʲhtˤotʼˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.8.NEG.passive’, hpoæṃ /hpˠɛmˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.8.POS.active’, þwatzo /θʷat͡sˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.8.POS.passive’, p̣onɹo /pˤɔ#ɹˠ/ ‘3.sing.cl.9.NEG.active’, þ̣uwi /θˤuʋʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.9.NEG.passive’, ggiari /ɠʲaɾʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.9.POS.active’, chʼiedẓ /t͡ʃʼʲed͡zˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.9.POS.passive’, ẓqoili /zˤqˠil̪ʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.10.NEG.active’, rsothwanṛ /ʂˠtʰʷa#ɾˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.10.NEG.passive’, qhiugi /ᵏǃʰʲuɡʲ/ ‘3.sing.cl.10.POS.active’, rsogq̣ótẓ /ʂˠqʼˤot͡sˤ/ ‘3.sing.cl.10.POS.passive’, sitoɵnsi /sʲtˠɵ#sʲ/ ‘1incl.dual.NEG.active’, shiq̣abo /ʃʲqˤabˠ/ ‘1incl.dual.NEG.passive’, zhiɞɞdto /ʒʲɞːtʼˠ/ ‘1incl.dual.POS.active’, bp̣owho /pʼˤɔɸˠ/ ‘1incl.dual.POS.passive’, shigq̣ææṛ́ /ʃʲqʼˤɛːrˤ/ ‘1excl.dual.NEG.active’, ᵏǀʼwɵnɵndi /ᵏǀʼʷɵ#ːd̪ʲ/ ‘1excl.dual.NEG.passive’, ᵏǃʼoodi /ᵏǃʼˠɔdʲ/ ‘1excl.dual.POS.active’, tlhoisi /tɬˠisʲ/ ‘1excl.dual.POS.passive’, zhip̣ɵḍ /ʒʲpˤɵd̪ˤ/ ‘2.dual.NEG.active’, ẅiɞwho /ɰʲɞɸˠ/ ‘2.dual.NEG.passive’, ṭooqḥ /t̪ˤɔːʁˤ/ ‘2.dual.POS.active’, nxiiṕ̣ /ᵑǁʲip͡fˤ/ ‘2.dual.POS.passive’, noanrrhi /nˠa#ɽʱʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.1.NEG.active’, għoini /ʕˠinʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.1.NEG.passive’, sohtianli /sˠhtʲa#l̪ʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.1.POS.active’, rdhoɞxxo /ɖʱˠɞxˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.1.POS.passive’, rsoqḥænni /ʂˠqʰˤɛ#nʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.2.NEG.active’, zhoghiɵɵr̥o /ʒˠɡʱʲɵːr̥ˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.2.NEG.passive’, rziqḥónónrno /ʐʲqʰˤo#ːɳˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.2.POS.active’, swkḥæɭi /sʷkʰˤɛɭʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.2.POS.passive’, q̣eehli /qˤeːɬʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.3.NEG.active’, hmiananhlo /m̥ʲa#ːɬˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.3.NEG.passive’, qhiósi /ᵏǃʰʲosʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.3.POS.active’, zotoaʈʼo /zˠtˠaʈʼˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.3.POS.passive’, zhiiiɭo /ʒʲiːɭˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.4.NEG.active’, zhokienenḅ /ʒˠkʲe#ːbˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.4.NEG.passive’, phienvi /pʰʲe#vʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.4.POS.active’, rsiununqho /ʂʲu#ːʁˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.4.POS.passive’, twæwo /tʷɛʋˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.5.NEG.active’, ṣdtiʉwi /sˤtʼʲʉʋʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.5.NEG.passive’, ziq̣uti /zʲqˤut̪ʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.5.POS.active’, swkhoiichʼi /sʷkʰˠiːt͡ʃʼʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.5.POS.passive’, d͡ʐoano /d͡ʐˠanˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.6.NEG.active’, djogi /t͡ʃɔɡʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.6.NEG.passive’, gkingo /kʼʲᵊŋˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.6.POS.active’, xxoɵnɵnħi /xˠɵ#ːħʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.6.POS.passive’, qhoarzo /qʰˠaʐˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.7.NEG.active’, qouchʼi /qˠut͡ʃʼʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.7.NEG.passive’, ghwʉf̣ /ɡʱʷʉfˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.7.POS.active’, sohḳğ̣ /sˠhkˤᵊɣˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.7.POS.passive’, swarsi /sʷaʂʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.8.NEG.active’, rtierzo /ʈʲeʐˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.8.NEG.passive’, jjoʉxxo /ʄˠʉxˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.8.POS.active’, zoħgiɵnği /zˠɢʲɵ#ɣʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.8.POS.passive’, qḥozi /qʰˤɔzʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.9.NEG.active’, cḥununḅ /χˤu#ːbˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.9.NEG.passive’, sigkienengko /sʲkʼʲe#ːkʼˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.9.POS.active’, sibpiʉʉjhi /sʲpʼʲʉːd͡ʒʱʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.9.POS.passive’, jhoɵrni /d͡ʒʱˠɵɳʲ/ ‘3.dual.cl.10.NEG.active’, tḥʉḅ /tʰˤʉbˤ/ ‘3.dual.cl.10.NEG.passive’, shoquoorro /ʃˠkʷɔːɽˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.10.POS.active’, cwɞnɞnrno /ᵏǀʷɞ#ːɴˠ/ ‘3.dual.cl.10.POS.passive’, ggiɵnɵnrni /ɠʲɵ#ːɳʲ/ ‘1incl.plur.NEG.active’, swrtiɞqqho /sʷʈʲɞq͡χˠ/ ‘1incl.plur.NEG.passive’, shiqḥerzo /ʃʲqʰˤeʐˠ/ ‘1incl.plur.POS.active’, rsipḥuẅo /ʂʲpʰˤuɰˠ/ ‘1incl.plur.POS.passive’, f̣inxxi /fˤi#xʲ/ ‘1excl.plur.NEG.active’, ħgwʉṛ́ /ɢʷʉrˤ/ ‘1excl.plur.NEG.passive’, tlhoelo /tɬˠel̪ˠ/ ‘1excl.plur.POS.active’, choatzi /ᵏǀʰˠat͡sʲ/ ‘1excl.plur.POS.passive’, ṣṭʉnʉnŕo /sˤtˤʉ#ːrˠ/ ‘2.plur.NEG.active’, zwthwanḅ /zʷtʰʷa#bˤ/ ‘2.plur.NEG.passive’, chiunhli /ᵏǀʰʲu#ɬʲ/ ‘2.plur.POS.active’, sorthoaħo /sˠʈʰˠaħˠ/ ‘2.plur.POS.passive’, qhiŕi /ʁʲᵊrʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.1.NEG.active’, ᵑǀʼiænrzo /ᵑǀʼʲɛ#ʐˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.1.NEG.passive’, quhti /kʰʷᵊt̪ʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.1.POS.active’, doɵğ̣ /dˠɵɣˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.1.POS.passive’, ʈʼoɞrzo /ʈʼˠɞʐˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.2.NEG.active’, dziinŕo /d͡zʲi#rˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.2.NEG.passive’, wḥaghi /ɸˤaɡʱʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.2.POS.active’, biorti /bʲɔʈʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.2.POS.passive’, zwkiaati /zʷkʲaːt̪ʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.3.NEG.active’, ṿaat͡ʂi /vˤaːt͡ʂʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.3.NEG.passive’, ŋ̥iææþ̣ /ŋ̥ʲɛːθˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.3.POS.active’, shokiʉnɥi /ʃˠkʲʉ#ɥʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.3.POS.passive’, rzitwʉrdo /ʐʲtʷʉɖˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.4.NEG.active’, rzogq̣ʉngi /ʐˠqʼˤʉŋʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.4.NEG.passive’, rṇununwhi /ɴˤu#ːɸʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.4.POS.active’, chiiwhi /χʲiɸʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.4.POS.passive’, p̣ong̣ /pˤɔŋˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.5.NEG.active’, gqiɞnɞnṣ /qʼʲɞ#ːsˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.5.NEG.passive’, þiʉnḅ /θʲʉ#bˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.5.POS.active’, c̣ununrri /ᵏǀˤu#ːɽʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.5.POS.passive’, ᵑǃʼ̣ebi /ᵑǃʼˤebʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.6.NEG.active’, djawḥ /t͡ʃaɸˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.6.NEG.passive’, swgq̣ærzi /sʷqʼˤɛʐʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.6.POS.active’, hkwgḳ /hkʷᵊkʼˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.6.POS.passive’, zihkwininrro /zʲhkʷi#ːɽˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.7.NEG.active’, rsidtiʉvo /ʂʲtʼʲʉvˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.7.NEG.passive’, nqiɵrri /ᵑǃʲɵɽʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.7.POS.active’, ɥoiiti /ɥˠiːtʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.7.POS.passive’, c̣aŕi /ᵏǀˤarʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.8.NEG.active’, toiko /t̪ˠikˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.8.NEG.passive’, ħg̣ɞnq̣ /ɢˤɞ#qˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.8.POS.active’, bióṇ /bʲonˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.8.POS.passive’, ngxióóği /ᵑǁʱʲoːɣʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.9.NEG.active’, zwtoɵrdo /zʷtˠɵɖˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.9.NEG.passive’, ẓrdoandhi /zˤɖˠa#dʱʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.9.POS.active’, ᵏǀʼ̣unqhi /ᵏǀʼˤu#ʁʲ/ ‘3.plur.cl.9.POS.passive’, ᵏǁʼienenxxo /ᵏǁʼʲe#ːxˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.10.NEG.active’, ʛ̣anbpo /ʛˤa#pʼˠ/ ‘3.plur.cl.10.NEG.passive’, shogqiænqqḥ /ʃˠqʼʲɛ#q͡χˤ/ ‘3.plur.cl.10.POS.active’ and ńwonony /n̥ʷɔ#ːj/ ‘3.plur.cl.10.POS.passive’; fourth, a clitic expressing ta, comprising zibpouẅo /zʲpʼˠuɰˠ/ ‘PAST’; and finally, fifth, a clitic expressing mode, comprising goæhli /ɡˠɛɬʲ/ ‘imperative’, gqiuugħo /qʼʲuːʕˠ/ ‘conditional’ and gḳeṇ /kʼˤenˤ/ ‘optative’.
The verb itself does not have any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.
The verb displays the following derivational morphology: 19 prefixes, namely swanansotw- /sʷa#ːsˠtʷ-/ ‘begin’, zigḥzwgqu- /zʲɡʱˤᵊzʷkʼʷ-/ ‘stop’, ẅizhobḥ- /ɰʲᵊʒˠbʱˤ-/ ‘continue’, rzioophi- /ʐʲɔːpʰʲ-/ ‘try’, ħiɵngg̣- /ħʲɵ#ɠˤ-/ ‘start’, qhozodhi- /ʁˠᵊzˠdʱʲ-/ ‘want’, qhoónónɹi- /ᵏǃʰˠo#ːɹʲ-/ ‘can’, sihp̣izhoqhw- /sʲhpˤiʒˠqʰʷ-/ ‘finish’, gg̣atho- /ɠˤatʰˠ-/ ‘need’, ṣkousidti- /sˤkˠusʲtʼʲ-/ ‘decide’, zhorthiininhti- /ʒˠʈʰʲi#ːhtʲ-/ ‘fail’, qhwʉxhi- /ʁʷʉᵏǁʰʲ-/ ‘hope’, zhoghwoṣbpo- /ʒˠɡʱʷɔsˤpʼˠ-/ ‘must’, noononṣbpi- /nˠɔ#ːsˤpʼʲ-/ ‘pretend’, ᵑǀʼoæzohʈo- /ᵑǀʼˠɛzˠhʈˠ-/ ‘let’, hloangq̣- /ɮˠaᵑǃʱˤ-/ ‘force’, sitḥʉsitw- /sʲtʰˤʉsʲt̪ʷ-/ ‘keep’, gqozwrdo- /qʼˠᵊzʷɖˠ-/ ‘cause’ and ńwingħi- /n̥ʷi#ʕʲ-/ ‘allow’
Gcwæɹo woiwhi shoqḥĩṇ. [ᶢǀʷɛɹˠ ʋˠiɸʲ ʃˠqʰˤḭ꜒n̪ˤ] ᶢǀʷɛɹˠ 1excl.sing.POS.active ʋˠiɸʲ 2.sing.OBJ ʃˠqʰˤḭ꜒n̪ˤ love “I love you.” | (16) |
Adverbs Minor Classes
Adpositions
There is one type of clitic in the adpositional phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing root.
khoɵɵgko zwħgiuto shionẓbhiaúṿ zwħgiuto shionziboʉ̃do jhoænæn̉do [kʰˠɵːkʼˠ zʷɢʲutˠ ʃʲɔ̃zˤbʱʲau꜖꜒vˤ zʷɢʲutˠ ʃʲɔ̃zʲbˠʉ̰꜒d̪ˠ d͡ʒʱˠɛ̃ː̰꜖dˠ] kʰˠɵːkʼˠ LOC zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʃʲɔ̃ᵑǃʱˤ- cl.3 zˤbʱʲau꜖꜒vˤ table zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʃʲɔ̃ᵑǃʱˤ- cl.3 zʲbˠʉ̰꜒d̪ˠ surface d͡ʒʱˠɛ̃ː̰꜖dˠ in “on the table” | (17) |
rzoquhɞshi zwħgiuto zoṭonẓg̣enenghw̄q zwħgiuto shiœnkoünüñr̥i ɥ̣œ̀ḅ [ʐˠkʰʷɞʃʲ zʷɢʲutˠ zˠt̪ˤɔ̃zˤɡˤẽːɡʱʷᵊ꜒ʔ zʷɢʲutˠ ʃʲœ̃kˠỹː̰꜒r̥ʲ ɥˤœ꜒꜖bˤ] ʐˠkʰʷɞʃʲ DAT zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing zˠt̪ˤɔ̃zˤɡˤ- cl.9 ŋ̥ʲẽːɡʱʷᵊ꜒ʔ box zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʃʲɔ̃ᵑǃʱˤ- cl.3 ŋˠỹː̰꜒r̥ʲ inside ɥˤœ꜒꜖bˤ to “into the box” | (18) |
zwħgiuto khoɵɵgko moœnœn̄ki rsotiunnwin̠vo [zʷɢʲutˠ kʰˠɵːkʼˠ mˠœ̃ː꜒kʲ ʂˠt̪ʲũnʷĩ꜖vˠ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing kʰˠɵːkʼˠ LOC mˠœ̃ː꜒kʲ 1excl.sing ʂˠt̪ʲũnʷĩ꜖vˠ COMIT “with me” | (19) |
Syntax
Basic Clause Structure
Constituent Order
Constituent order describes the typical arrangement of the subject (S), verb (V) and object (O) in simple declarative clauses. It is a fundamental parameter in grammatical description and forms one of the clearest ways of characterising the overall structure of a language’s clause system.
Hoel has basic Subject–Object–Verb (SOV) word order. The subject precedes the object, and the verb appears at the end of the clause. This is one of the most frequent patterns cross-linguistically.
The following examples illustrate the basic, unmarked, constituent order in Hoel.
Zwħgiuto chotzʼo tzʼ̣ænænkxwenqhiün̠mo zwħgiuto rsorthiænænḍanẓrdhoǣmo zibpouẅo hliodo gc̣ɵdzi chʼian̠vo. [zʷɢʲutˠ ᵏǀʰˠᵊt͡sʼˠ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːk͡xʷẽʁʲỹ꜖mˠ zʷɢʲutˠ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːdˤãzˤɖʱˠɛ꜒mˠ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ ɮʲɔd̪ˠ ᶢǀˤɵd͡zʲ t͡ʃʼʲã꜖vˠ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ᵏǀʰˠᵊt͡sʼˠ ERG t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 ɠʷẽʁʲỹ꜖mˠ jaguar zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 dˤãzˤɖʱˠɛ꜒mˠ hunter zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST ɮʲɔd̪ˠ 3.sing.cl.7.POS.active ᶢǀˤɵd͡zʲ 3.sing.cl.2.OBJ t͡ʃʼʲã꜖vˠ kill “The jaguar killed the hunter.” | (20) |
Zwħgiuto chotzʼo tzʼ̣ænænṕ̣uursihḳóẓ zwħgiuto zwħgiuto rsorthiænænḍanẓrdhoǣmo nqoʉli rsorthiænændtowhiʉnʉn̠kxo nqoʉli tzʼ̣ænændziæ̀ṇ zibpouẅo hliodo gc̣ɵdzi gqwón̄ro. [zʷɢʲutˠ ᵏǀʰˠᵊt͡sʼˠ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːp͡fˤuːʂʲhkˤɔ꜖꜒zˤ zʷɢʲutˠ zʷɢʲutˠ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːdˤãzˤɖʱˠɛ꜒mˠ ᵑǃˠʉlʲ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠɸʲʉ̃ː꜖k͡xˠ ᵑǃˠʉlʲ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲɛ꜒꜖n̪ˤ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ ɮʲɔd̪ˠ ᶢǀˤɵd͡zʲ ᶢǃʷõ꜒ɾˠ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ᵏǀʰˠᵊt͡sʼˠ ERG t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 pʰˤuːʂʲhkˤɔ꜖꜒zˤ lion zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 dˤãzˤɖʱˠɛ꜒mˠ hunter ᵑǃˠʉlʲ 3.sing.cl.2.sing ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 ɸʲʉ̃ː꜖k͡xˠ daughter ᵑǃˠʉlʲ 3.sing.cl.2.sing t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 ʈʼˠɛ꜒꜖n̪ˤ dog zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST ɮʲɔd̪ˠ 3.sing.cl.7.POS.active ᶢǀˤɵd͡zʲ 3.sing.cl.2.OBJ ᶢǃʷõ꜒ɾˠ eat “The lion ate the hunter’s daughter’s dog.” | (21) |
The language has a fixed constituent order, and major phrases normally appear in a predictable position in the clause. Movement for discourse reasons is highly restricted: topics and foci are expressed not by rearranging elements, but through dedicated constructions such as clefts, focus clauses or topic–comment frames. Constituents remain continuous, and both the relative order of phrases and the internal structure of each phrase are stable. As a result, significant deviations from the basic word order are ungrammatical, and discourse structure is managed through these specialised constructions rather than through word-order variation.
Noun Phrases
Structure and Order
The internal structure of noun phrases in Hoel reveals typologically significant preferences in the ordering of nominal constituents. This includes the position of adjectives, numerals, and possessors relative to the noun, each of which can offer clues to the overall headedness of the language.
Possessive constructions are head-final: the possessor precedes the possessed noun. For example, Hoel expresses “the child’s toy” with the equivalent of “child toy”. This ordering is found in many SOV and postpositional languages and aligns with a broader tendency towards modifier-first structures.
tzʼwónqo rsorthiænændtoṛæ̠vi nqoʉli rsorthiænænsobpoö̃no nqoʉli ẓrtoashitḥóó̀li [t͡sʼʷõqˠ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠɾˤɛ꜖vʲ ᵑǃˠʉlʲ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːsˠpʼˠø̰꜒nˠ ᵑǃˠʉlʲ zˤʈˠaʃʲtʰˤoː꜒꜖l̪ʲ] t͡sʼʷõqˠ 2.sing.sing ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 ɾˤɛ꜖vʲ son ᵑǃˠʉlʲ 3.sing.cl.2.sing ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 sˠpʼˠø̰꜒nˠ friend ᵑǃˠʉlʲ 3.sing.cl.2.sing zˤʈˠaʃʲtʰˤ- cl.5 ʒʲbʲoː꜒꜖l̪ʲ book “your son’s friend’s book” | (22) |
Case Marking
Hoel uses split case marking. In the present tense, the grammar follows a nominative–accusative pattern, where intransitive and transitive subjects are treated alike and objects are marked with the accusative. In the past tense, however, it follows an ergative–absolutive pattern, here called ergative–nominative, where intransitive subjects and transitive objects are treated alike and transitive subjects are marked with the ergative. This makes sense because present-tense clauses often describe events as ongoing, habitual or controlled by an active participant, so the grammar treats the subject as the central argument. Past-tense clauses, by contrast, often present an event as completed, making the affected participant especially salient. The ergative marking then singles out the transitive agent as the additional participant responsible for bringing about that result.
Zwħgiuto tzʼ̣ænændzianan̄bo hliodo hḳʉ̀dṭ. [zʷɢʲutˠ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲãː꜒bˠ ɮʲɔd̪ˠ hkˤʉ꜒꜖tʼˤ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 sˤqʰˠãː꜒bˠ cat ɮʲɔd̪ˠ 3.sing.cl.7.POS.active hkˤʉ꜒꜖tʼˤ sleep “The cat is sleeping.” | (23) |
Zwħgiuto tzʼ̣ænændzianan̄bo zwdḥóği. [zʷɢʲutˠ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲãː꜒bˠ zʷdʱˤɔ꜖꜒ɣʲ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 sˤqʰˠãː꜒bˠ cat zʷdʱˤɔ꜖꜒ɣʲ run “The cat is running.” | (24) |
Zwħgiuto tzʼ̣ænændzianan̄bo sigqiiqqḥiidhiɵ̀ħo. [zʷɢʲutˠ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲãː꜒bˠ sʲqʼʲiq͡χˤiːdʱʲɵ꜒꜖ħˠ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 sˤqʰˠãː꜒bˠ cat sʲqʼʲitɬʲ- chase ʛˤiːdʱʲɵ꜒꜖ħˠ mouse “The cat is chasing the mouse.” | (25) |
Zwħgiuto chotzʼo tzʼ̣ænændzianan̄bo zwħgiuto tzʼ̣ænænqqḥiidhiɵ̀ħo zibpouẅo hliodo giiqho zobp̣ónón̠fi. [zʷɢʲutˠ ᵏǀʰˠᵊt͡sʼˠ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲãː꜒bˠ zʷɢʲutˠ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːq͡χˤiːdʱʲɵ꜒꜖ħˠ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ ɮʲɔd̪ˠ ɡʲiʁˠ zˠpʼˤõː꜖fʲ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ᵏǀʰˠᵊt͡sʼˠ ERG t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 sˤqʰˠãː꜒bˠ cat zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 ʛˤiːdʱʲɵ꜒꜖ħˠ mouse zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST ɮʲɔd̪ˠ 3.sing.cl.7.POS.active ɡʲiʁˠ 3.sing.cl.7.OBJ zˠpʼˤõː꜖fʲ catch “The cat caught the mouse.” | (26) |
Conjunctions
Here is an example of a conjunction.
Zwħgiuto chotzʼo rsorthiænænḍanẓrdhoǣmo shiɵħgi shiɵħgi tzʼ̣ænænkxwenqhiün̠mo ᵑǃʼ̣ö̀ği shiɵħgi tzʼ̣ænænṕoaaṣpoónóǹdj ᵑǃʼ̣ö̀ği shiɵħgi tzʼ̣ænænṕ̣uursihḳóẓ zibpouẅo chʼiʉgko rsodtwʉʉrsi chʼian̠vo. [zʷɢʲutˠ ᵏǀʰˠᵊt͡sʼˠ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːdˤãzˤɖʱˠɛ꜒mˠ ʃʲɵɢʲ ʃʲɵɢʲ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːk͡xʷẽʁʲỹ꜖mˠ ᵑǃʼˤø꜒꜖ɣʲ ʃʲɵɢʲ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːp͡fˠaːsˤpˠõː꜒꜖t͡ʃ ᵑǃʼˤø꜒꜖ɣʲ ʃʲɵɢʲ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːp͡fˤuːʂʲhkˤɔ꜖꜒zˤ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ ʂˠtʼʷʉːʂʲ t͡ʃʼʲã꜖vˠ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ᵏǀʰˠᵊt͡sʼˠ ERG ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 dˤãzˤɖʱˠɛ꜒mˠ hunter ʃʲɵɢʲ no.owner.plur ʃʲɵɢʲ no.owner.plur t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 ɠʷẽʁʲỹ꜖mˠ jaguar ᵑǃʼˤø꜒꜖ɣʲ and ʃʲɵɢʲ no.owner.plur t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 pˠaːsˤpˠõː꜒꜖t͡ʃ tiger ᵑǃʼˤø꜒꜖ɣʲ and ʃʲɵɢʲ no.owner.plur t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 pʰˤuːʂʲhkˤɔ꜖꜒zˤ lion zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ 3.sing.cl.2.POS.active ʂˠtʼʷʉːʂʲ 3.plur.cl.7.OBJ t͡ʃʼʲã꜖vˠ kill “The hunter killed the jaguars, the tigers and the lions.” | (27) |
Modifiers and Determiners
The ordering of demonstratives, articles (if present), and other modifiers in Hoel provides further insight into the structure of the noun phrase. These elements frequently exhibit fixed positions and may reveal whether the language favours head-initial or head-final patterns.
Complex Sentences
Relative Clauses
Hoel forms relative clauses by placing them before the noun they modify. The modifier takes the form of a finite clause that precedes the head noun without any relative pronoun. The clause shows ordinary clausal structure, with the role of the head noun recoverable from the syntactic position inside the clause.
To illustrate how relative clauses work, let us begin with a simple sentence:
Zwħgiuto tzʼ̣ænændzianan̄bo zibpouẅo gcwæɹo giiqho yɵdiuủtlhi. [zʷɢʲutˠ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲãː꜒bˠ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ ᶢǀʷɛɹˠ ɡʲiʁˠ jɵdʲuː̰꜖tɬʲ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 sˤqʰˠãː꜒bˠ cat zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST ᶢǀʷɛɹˠ 1excl.sing.POS.active ɡʲiʁˠ 3.sing.cl.7.OBJ jɵdʲuː̰꜖tɬʲ pat “I patted the cat.” | (28) |
We can now add a relative clause modifying the noun:
Zwħgiuto zwħgiuto tzʼ̣ænænqqḥiidhiɵ̀ħo zibpouẅo giiqho zobp̣ónón̠fi zwħgiuto tzʼ̣ænændzianan̄bo zibpouẅo gcwæɹo giiqho yɵdiuủtlhi. [zʷɢʲutˠ zʷɢʲutˠ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːq͡χˤiːdʱʲɵ꜒꜖ħˠ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ ɡʲiʁˠ zˠpʼˤõː꜖fʲ zʷɢʲutˠ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲãː꜒bˠ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ ᶢǀʷɛɹˠ ɡʲiʁˠ jɵdʲuː̰꜖tɬʲ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 ʛˤiːdʱʲɵ꜒꜖ħˠ mouse zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST ɡʲiʁˠ 3.sing.cl.7.OBJ zˠpʼˤõː꜖fʲ catch zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 sˤqʰˠãː꜒bˠ cat zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST ᶢǀʷɛɹˠ 1excl.sing.POS.active ɡʲiʁˠ 3.sing.cl.7.OBJ jɵdʲuː̰꜖tɬʲ pat “I patted the cat that caught the mouse.” | (29) |
Relative clauses may themselves contain other relative clauses:
Zwħgiuto zwħgiuto zibpouẅo ghwasipḥrzidhwāto zwħgiuto tzʼ̣ænænqqḥiidhiɵ̀ħo zibpouẅo giiqho zobp̣ónón̠fi zwħgiuto tzʼ̣ænændzianan̄bo zibpouẅo gcwæɹo giiqho yɵdiuủtlhi. [zʷɢʲutˠ zʷɢʲutˠ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ ɡʱʷasʲpʰˤᵊʐʲdʱʷa꜒tˠ zʷɢʲutˠ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːq͡χˤiːdʱʲɵ꜒꜖ħˠ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ ɡʲiʁˠ zˠpʼˤõː꜖fʲ zʷɢʲutˠ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲãː꜒bˠ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ ᶢǀʷɛɹˠ ɡʲiʁˠ jɵdʲuː̰꜖tɬʲ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST ɡʱʷaᵑǃʷ- eat sʲpʰˤᵊʐʲdʱʷa꜒tˠ cheese zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 ʛˤiːdʱʲɵ꜒꜖ħˠ mouse zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST ɡʲiʁˠ 3.sing.cl.7.OBJ zˠpʼˤõː꜖fʲ catch zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 sˤqʰˠãː꜒bˠ cat zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST ᶢǀʷɛɹˠ 1excl.sing.POS.active ɡʲiʁˠ 3.sing.cl.7.OBJ jɵdʲuː̰꜖tɬʲ pat “I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese.” | (30) |
Finally, here is an example containing several layers of embedding:
Zwħgiuto zwħgiuto zwħgiuto ṣqiongqi moœnœn̄ki zwħgiuto zibpouẅo rzohtwɵɵ́ni zwħgiuto dẓosipḥrzidhwāto zibpouẅo dḥæʈʼo gqwón̄ro zwħgiuto tzʼ̣ænænqqḥiidhiɵ̀ħo zibpouẅo dḥæʈʼo zobp̣ónón̠fi zwħgiuto tzʼ̣ænændzianan̄bo zibpouẅo gcwæɹo dḥæʈʼo yɵdiuủtlhi. [zʷɢʲutˠ zʷɢʲutˠ zʷɢʲutˠ sˤqʲɔ̃qʼʲ mˠœ̃ː꜒kʲ zʷɢʲutˠ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ ʐˠhtʷɵː꜖꜒n̪ʲ zʷɢʲutˠ d͡zˤɔsʲpʰˤᵊʐʲdʱʷa꜒tˠ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ dʱˤɛʈʼˠ ᶢǃʷõ꜒ɾˠ zʷɢʲutˠ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːq͡χˤiːdʱʲɵ꜒꜖ħˠ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ dʱˤɛʈʼˠ zˠpʼˤõː꜖fʲ zʷɢʲutˠ t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲãː꜒bˠ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ ᶢǀʷɛɹˠ dʱˤɛʈʼˠ jɵdʲuː̰꜖tɬʲ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing sˤqʲɔ̃qʼʲ 3.sing.cl.3.sing mˠœ̃ː꜒kʲ 1excl.sing zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST ʐˠhtʷɵː꜖꜒n̪ʲ buy zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing d͡zˤɔsʲpʰˤ- cl.8 sʲpʰˤᵊʐʲdʱʷa꜒tˠ cheese zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST dʱˤɛʈʼˠ 1excl.sing.OBJ ᶢǃʷõ꜒ɾˠ eat zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 ʛˤiːdʱʲɵ꜒꜖ħˠ mouse zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST dʱˤɛʈʼˠ 1excl.sing.OBJ zˠpʼˤõː꜖fʲ catch zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing t͡sʼˤɛ̃ːd͡zʲ- cl.7 sˤqʰˠãː꜒bˠ cat zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST ᶢǀʷɛɹˠ 1excl.sing.POS.active dʱˤɛʈʼˠ 1excl.sing.OBJ jɵdʲuː̰꜖tɬʲ pat “I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese that I bought.” | (31) |
Complementation Strategies
Hoel forms complement clauses by nominalising the embedded verb. The nominalised form lacks finite verbal categories and behaves as a noun phrase. Subjects of nominalised clauses occur in the genitive case, and the nominalised verb establishes the semantic content of the complement.
The following example illustrate how complement clauses function:
Zwħgiuto chotzʼo ṣqiongqi rsorthiænænqwɞnɞñṛ zwħgiuto zwħgiuto rzoquhɞshi rsorthiænændtoshihtoỉʈʼo zwħgiuto għoó̃ṣ ʡoishikiʉʉhp̣éngo zibpouẅo sibpiægḥ thiagko ngxiǖpo zwħgiuto rzoquhɞshi rsorthiænænbḥiidjɵɵlo zibpouẅo qḥiþ̣ thiagko rzortoɵɵsitianañgḳ. [zʷɢʲutˠ ᵏǀʰˠᵊt͡sʼˠ sˤqʲɔ̃qʼʲ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːqʷɞ̃ː̰꜒ɾˤ zʷɢʲutˠ zʷɢʲutˠ ʐˠkʰʷɞʃʲ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠʃʲhtˠḭ꜖ʈʼˠ zʷɢʲutˠ ʕˠo̰꜒sˤ ʡˠiʃʲkʲʉːhpˤe꜖꜒ŋˠ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ sʲpʼʲɛɡʱˤ tʰʲakʼˠ ᵑǁʱʲy꜒pˠ zʷɢʲutˠ ʐˠkʰʷɞʃʲ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːbʱˤiːt͡ʃɵːlˠ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ qʰˤiθˤ tʰʲakʼˠ ʐˠʈˠɵːsʲtʲãː̰꜒kʼˤ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ᵏǀʰˠᵊt͡sʼˠ ERG sˤqʲɔ̃qʼʲ 3.sing.cl.3.sing ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 qʷɞ̃ː̰꜒ɾˤ boy zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʐˠkʰʷɞʃʲ DAT ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 ʃʲhtˠḭ꜖ʈʼˠ girl zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʕˠo̰꜒sˤ a ʡˠiᵏǀʲ- cl.1 ʃʲkʲʉːhpˤe꜖꜒ŋˠ apple zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST sʲpʼʲɛɡʱˤ 3.sing.cl.1.OBJ tʰʲakʼˠ 3.sing.cl.2.INDOBJ ᵑǁʱʲy꜒pˠ give zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʐˠkʰʷɞʃʲ DAT ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 bʱˤiːt͡ʃɵːlˠ teacher zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST qʰˤiθˤ 3.sing.cl.3.POS.active tʰʲakʼˠ 3.sing.cl.2.INDOBJ ʐˠʈˠɵːsʲtʲãː̰꜒kʼˤ surprise “It surprised the teacher that the boy had given the girl an apple.” | (32) |
Quotes
Hoel employs a quotative particle to mark direct and indirect speech. The quotative follows the reported phrase and identifies the preceding expression as quoted or reported. The same construction is also used to express reported thoughts.
Here is an example of how quotations are expressed:
Zwħgiuto chotzʼo rsorthiænænqwɞnɞñṛ zwħgiuto rzoquhɞshi rsorthiænændtoshihtoỉʈʼo zwħgiuto ṣqiongqi moœnœn̄ki zwħgiuto zwħgiuto zhortianrsi rzorthoɵɵ̠ng̣ woiwhi shoqḥĩṇ zibpouẅo chʼiʉgko dḥæʈʼo thiagko ħgiẻtzi. [zʷɢʲutˠ ᵏǀʰˠᵊt͡sʼˠ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːqʷɞ̃ː̰꜒ɾˤ zʷɢʲutˠ ʐˠkʰʷɞʃʲ ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠʃʲhtˠḭ꜖ʈʼˠ zʷɢʲutˠ sˤqʲɔ̃qʼʲ mˠœ̃ː꜒kʲ zʷɢʲutˠ zʷɢʲutˠ ʒˠʈʲãʂʲ ʐˠʈʰˠɵː꜖ŋˤ ʋˠiɸʲ ʃˠqʰˤḭ꜒n̪ˤ zʲpʼˠuɰˠ t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ dʱˤɛʈʼˠ tʰʲakʼˠ ɢʲḛ꜖t͡sʲ] zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ᵏǀʰˠᵊt͡sʼˠ ERG ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 qʷɞ̃ː̰꜒ɾˤ boy zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʐˠkʰʷɞʃʲ DAT ʂˠʈʰʲɛ̃ːtʼˠ- cl.2 ʃʲhtˠḭ꜖ʈʼˠ girl zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing sˤqʲɔ̃qʼʲ 3.sing.cl.3.sing mˠœ̃ː꜒kʲ 1excl.sing zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing zʷɢʲutˠ no.owner.sing ʒˠʈʲãʂʲ ACC ʐˠʈʰˠɵː꜖ŋˤ 2.sing ʋˠiɸʲ 2.sing.OBJ ʃˠqʰˤḭ꜒n̪ˤ love zʲpʼˠuɰˠ PAST t͡ʃʼʲʉkʼˠ 3.sing.cl.2.POS.active dʱˤɛʈʼˠ 1excl.sing.OBJ tʰʲakʼˠ 3.sing.cl.2.INDOBJ ɢʲḛ꜖t͡sʲ tell “The boy told the girl that he loved her.” | (33) |
How to cite this grammar
Language Creator. 2026. A Grammar of Hoel. Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.93, on 11 November 2026. https://languagecreator.org/grammar/72N3J
In BibTeX format:
@misc{LC-72N3J,
year = 2026,
author = {{Language Creator}},
title = {A Grammar of {Hoel}},
howpublished = {\url{https://languagecreator.org/grammar/72N3J}},
note = {Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.93, on 11 November 2026}
}
Supplementary Materials
A collection of illustrative texts and a bilingual dictionary (English–Hoel / Hoel–English) accompany this grammar. The complete work – comprising the grammar, dictionary and texts – may also be downloaded in ODT or DOCX format.
Readers are encouraged to share observations or corrections via the feedback form. The present page may be accessed directly at:
https://languagecreator.org/grammar/72N3J
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