A Grammar of Makh
Introduction
Scope and Purpose
This grammar provides a systematic description of the Makh language (the 1956th one produced by the Language Creator), outlining its sound system, word formation and syntactic structure, with the aim of presenting a coherent account of the language as an integrated whole. Attention has been paid to both regular patterns and minor irregularities, as these together define the internal balance of the language.
The grammar is accompanied by a bilingual dictionary and a collection of illustrative texts, offering material for further study and comparison. The examples have been selected to demonstrate typical constructions and to give a sense of the language in extended use. The description is intended as a reference work for linguists and language enthusiasts alike, and as a foundation for any future research, teaching or creative adaptation of Makh.
Typological Profile
It has proper polysynthesis, ergative case marking, i.e., the object of a transitive verb is marked the same as the subject of an intransitive one, and postpositions.Phonology
Phoneme Inventory
Consonants
Makh has a large consonant inventory, comprising 35 phonemes.
It has an exceptionally large and contrastive set of fricatives, a highly developed aspirated consonant series, a notably rich set of sibilant contrasts, a strikingly small set of lateral and rhotic consonants and a modest (but clearly contrastive) set of labialised consonants.The table below presents the full inventory of consonant phonemes in Makh. The chart lists all places and manners of articulation attested in the language.
| labial | alveolar | postalveolar | palatal | velar | lab. velar | uvular | lab. uvular | glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| stop | p | t | k | kʷ | q | qʷ | ʔ | ||
| aspirated stop | tʰ | kʰ | kʰʷ | qʰ | qʰʷ | ||||
| ejective stop | tʼ | kʼ | kʷʼ | qʼ | qʷʼ | ||||
| nasal | m | n | |||||||
| fricative | s | ʃ | x | xʷ | χ | χʷ | h | ||
| approximant | w | j | |||||||
| affricate | t͡s | t͡ʃ | |||||||
| aspirated affricate | t͡sʰ | t͡ʃʰ | |||||||
| ejective affricate | t͡sʼ | t͡ʃʼ |
Vowels
Makh has 5 vowel qualities. This places it within the broadly common range of mid-sized vowel inventories. The vowel chart shows the full set of contrasts employed in the language’s phonology.
It has a fully contrastive long–short vowel distinction across the system and a full range of vowel qualities even in reduced syllables.The table below presents the full inventory of vowel phonemes in Makh. The system comprises the distinct vowel qualities listed in the chart.
| front | central | back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| close | i | u | |
| mid | e | o | |
| open | a |
Stress and Tones
Makh has phonemic stress and 2 lexical tones. Each lexical item carries a tonal specification associated with the first vowel of the root, which determines the overall tonal contour of the word.
Phonological Processes
Vowel Harmony
Vowel harmony does not exist in this language.
Writing System
Introduction
Makh is normally written using the Latin alphabet, whose familiarity makes it straightforward for most readers. For clarity and precision, phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are also provided throughout this grammar.
Orthography
Here are the various components of the orthography:
Simple letters
| a /a/ | b /p/ | d /t/ | e /e/ |
| g /k/ | h /h/ | i /i/ | j /j/ |
| k /kʰ/ | m /m/ | n /n/ | o /o/ |
| q /q, qʰ/ | s /s/ | t /tʰ/ | u /u/ |
| w /w/ |
Multi-letter combinations such as digraphs
| aa /aː/ | chʼ /t͡ʃʼ/ | dj /t͡ʃ/ |
| djh /t͡ʃʰ/ | dt /tʼ/ | ee /eː/ |
| gk /kʼ/ | gq /qʼ/ | gqu /kʼʷ/ |
| gqw /qʼʷ/ | ii /iː/ | kh /x/ |
| khw /xʷ/ | oo /oː/ | qh /χ/ |
| qhw /χʷ/ | qu /kʷ/ | quh /kʰʷ/ |
| qw /qʰʷ, qʷ/ | sh /ʃ/ | tz /t͡s/ |
| tzh /t͡sʰ/ | tzʼ /t͡sʼ/ | uu /uː/ |
| ’ /ʔ/ |
Diacritics
| ◌̄ /꜒/ | ◌̠ /꜖/ |
Word Classes and Morphology
Number and Gender
Number
Makh distinguishes singular and plural.
Gender
Makh does not have genders or noun classes.
The Nominal Phrase
Nominal phrases in Makh can be exemplified by the following example:
Tzʼō’agk quhōdjhiid sdeqe̠g qii̠s qhōw gōchʼitzhuqh chʼāqob gkoj tid dtii̠m do. [t͡sʼo꜒ʔakʼ kʰʷo꜒t͡ʃʰiːt steqe꜖k qiː꜖s χo꜒w ko꜒t͡ʃʼit͡sʰuχ t͡ʃʼa꜒qʰop kʼoj tʰit tʼiː꜖m to] t͡sʼ- ERG o- no.owner.POSS ꜒ʔakʼ woman kʰʷ- LOC o- no.owner.POSS ꜒t͡ʃʰiːt knife steqe꜖k COMIT qiː꜖s yon χo꜒w three k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜒t͡ʃʼit͡sʰuχ mouse t͡ʃʼ- plur a꜒qʰop blind kʼoj POS.active tʰit 3.plur.OBJ tʼiː꜖m catch to PAST.3.sing “The woman with the knife caught those three blind mice.” | (1) |
In the following, we shall look at the various components in more details.
There are no clitics in the nominal phrase.The Noun
The noun in Makh consists of first, an obligatory prefix expressing case, comprising g- /k-/ ‘ABS’, tzʼ- /t͡sʼ-/ ‘ERG’, s- /s-/ ‘DAT’, n- /n-/ ‘INS’, qw- /qʷ-/ ‘VOC’, k- /kʰ-/ ‘ALL’, quh- /kʰʷ-/ ‘LOC’, q- /qʰ-/ ‘ABL’ and q- /q-/ ‘PART’; second, an obligatory prefix expressing possessor, comprising uu- /uː-/ ‘1incl.sing’, ii- /iː-/ ‘1excl.sing’, aa- /aː-/ ‘2.sing’, ee- /eː-/ ‘3.sing’, u- /u-/ ‘1incl.plur’, oo- /oː-/ ‘1excl.plur’, e- /e-/ ‘2.plur’, i- /i-/ ‘3.plur’ and o- /o-/ ‘no.owner’; and finally, third, the root.
The noun displays the following derivational morphology: 39 prefixes, namely shii- /ʃiː-/ ‘little’, na- /na-/ ‘big’, qhee- /χeː-/ ‘old’, djhe- /t͡ʃʰe-/ ‘new’, gqwe- /qʼʷe-/ ‘good’, gqi- /qʼi-/ ‘bad’, tuu- /tʰuː-/ ‘make’, tzhu- /t͡sʰu-/ ‘help’, qhwo- /χʷo-/ ‘have’, tzho- /t͡sʰo-/ ‘use’, jee- /jeː-/ ‘see’, tzʼi- /t͡sʼi-/ ‘break’, ’u- /ʔu-/ ‘eat’, qui- /kʷi-/ ‘drink’, nii- /niː-/ ‘wear’, ’o- /ʔo-/ ‘own’, quhi- /kʰʷi-/ ‘contain’, bo- /po-/ ‘hold’, djhii- /t͡ʃʰiː-/ ‘lack’, tzha- /t͡sʰa-/ ‘touch’, quo- /kʷo-/ ‘carry’, he- /he-/ ‘find’, mo- /mo-/ ‘hunt’, qwoo- /qʷoː-/ ‘guard’, qoo- /qoː-/ ‘search’, gkaa- /kʼaː-/ ‘learn’, gqwa- /qʼʷa-/ ‘teach’, qaa- /qaː-/ ‘follow’, da- /ta-/ ‘chase’, tzhaa- /t͡sʰaː-/ ‘build’, qi- /qi-/ ‘burn’, gqii- /qʼiː-/ ‘hit’, gi- /ki-/ ‘take’, djhaa- /t͡ʃʰaː-/ ‘cut’, tzaa- /t͡saː-/ ‘hear’, khi- /xi-/ ‘know’, qu- /qʰu-/ ‘love’, ke- /kʰe-/ ‘protect’ and chʼaa- /t͡ʃʼaː-/ ‘possess’
The Adjective
In Makh, the adjective has the following structure: an obligatory prefix expressing number, comprising gqu- /kʼʷ-/ ‘sing’ and chʼ- /t͡ʃʼ-/ ‘plur’ followed by the root.
Numerals
The numeral in Makh stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.
Determiners
The determiner in Makh stands alone without any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.
Pronouns
The pronoun in Makh has the following structure: the root followed by an optional suffix expressing number, comprising -ob /-op/ ‘plur’.
In Makh, both subject and object pronouns are dropped unless they are stressed. Here is an example where neither of the pronouns are stressed:
Gkoj qu̠sgeh guj. [kʼoj qʰu꜖skeh kuj] kʼoj POS.active qʰu- love ꜖skeh girl kuj PRES.3.sing “He (the boy) loves her (the girl).” | (2) |
But here, the word corresponding to he is stressed:
Sqwo̠d gkoj qu̠sgeh guj. [sqʷo꜖t kʼoj qʰu꜖skeh kuj] sqʷo꜖t 3.sing kʼoj POS.active qʰu- love ꜖skeh girl kuj PRES.3.sing “He loves her.” | (3) |
And here, it is the one translated as her that is stressed:
Gkoj qu̠sgeh guj. [kʼoj qʰu꜖skeh kuj] kʼoj POS.active qʰu- love ꜖skeh girl kuj PRES.3.sing “He loves her.” | (4) |
Proper Nouns
Tzʼōchʼoso’ gōjaagquooq gkoj nagq tzʼajōs guj. [t͡sʼo꜒t͡ʃʼosoʔ ko꜒jaːkʼʷoːq kʼoj naqʼ t͡sʼajo꜒s kuj] t͡sʼ- ERG o- no.owner.POSS ꜒t͡ʃʼosoʔ Choso k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜒jaːkʼʷoːq Yakoq kʼoj POS.active naqʼ 3.sing.OBJ t͡sʼajo꜒s hate kuj PRES.3.sing “Choso hates Yakoq.” | (5) |
Possession
go̠buuw gee̠gquodadt [ko꜖puːw keː꜖kʼʷotatʼ] k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜖puːw boy k- ABS eː- 3.sing.POSS ꜖kʼʷotatʼ apple “the boy’s apple” | (6) |
sqwo̠d gee̠gquodadt [sqʷo꜖t keː꜖kʼʷotatʼ] sqʷo꜖t 3.sing k- ABS eː- 3.sing.POSS ꜖kʼʷotatʼ apple “his (the boy’s) apple” | (7) |
gii̠gquodadt [kiː꜖kʼʷotatʼ] k- ABS iː- 1excl.sing.POSS ꜖kʼʷotatʼ apple “my apple” | (8) |
Gōdjhaanon tzʼeēsbagq gaāguutzʼim geēkij gkoj nagq quetzi̠n do. [ko꜒t͡ʃʰaːnon t͡sʼeː꜒spaqʼ kaː꜒kuːt͡sʼim keː꜒kʰij kʼoj naqʼ kʷet͡si꜖n to] k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜒t͡ʃʰaːnon hunter t͡sʼ- ERG eː- 3.sing.POSS ꜒spaqʼ daughter k- ABS aː- 2.sing.POSS ꜒kuːt͡sʼim neighbour k- ABS eː- 3.sing.POSS ꜒kʰij son kʼoj POS.active naqʼ 3.sing.OBJ kʷet͡si꜖n kiss to PAST.3.sing “The hunter’s daughter kissed your neighbour’s son.” | (9) |
Derivation
gōtzʼishquqh [ko꜒t͡sʼiʃquχ] k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜒t͡sʼiʃquχ lamb “a lamb” | (10) |
goshiītzʼishquqh [koʃiː꜒t͡sʼiʃquχ] k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ʃiː- little ꜒t͡sʼiʃquχ lamb “a little lamb” | (11) |
Gkoj qhwoshiītzʼishquqh do. [kʼoj χʷoʃiː꜒t͡sʼiʃquχ to] kʼoj POS.active χʷo- have ʃiː- little ꜒t͡sʼiʃquχ lamb to PAST.3.sing “She had a little lamb.” | (12) |
Gkoj ’iqhwoshiītzʼishquqh do. [kʼoj ʔiχʷoʃiː꜒t͡sʼiʃquχ to] kʼoj POS.active ʔi- want χʷo- have ʃiː- little ꜒t͡sʼiʃquχ lamb to PAST.3.sing “She wanted to have a little lamb.” | (13) |
Tzʼoshiītzʼishquqh gkoj qi̠n do gqwoqii̠tzʼ gkoj nagq quūtzʼ sqwii̠q do. [t͡sʼoʃiː꜒t͡sʼiʃquχ kʼoj qi꜖n to qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ kʼoj naqʼ qʰuː꜒t͡sʼ sqʷiː꜖q to] t͡sʼ- ERG o- no.owner.POSS ʃiː- little ꜒t͡sʼiʃquχ lamb kʼoj POS.active qi꜖n have to PAST.3.sing qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ COMP kʼoj POS.active naqʼ 3.sing.OBJ qʰuː꜒t͡sʼ want sqʷiː꜖q often to PAST.3.sing “She often wanted to have a little lamb.” | (14) |
Sqwo̠d tzʼoshiītzʼishquqh gkoj qi̠n do gqwoqii̠tzʼ gkoj nagq quūtzʼ sqwii̠q do gqwoqii̠tzʼ gkoj nagq qu̠dj gqwoqii̠tzʼ bus nagq qwi̠gk sii’? [sqʷo꜖t t͡sʼoʃiː꜒t͡sʼiʃquχ kʼoj qi꜖n to qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ kʼoj naqʼ qʰuː꜒t͡sʼ sqʷiː꜖q to qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ kʼoj naqʼ qʰu꜖t͡ʃ qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ pus naqʼ qʷi꜖kʼ siːʔ] sqʷo꜖t 3.sing t͡sʼ- ERG o- no.owner.POSS ʃiː- little ꜒t͡sʼiʃquχ lamb kʼoj POS.active qi꜖n have to PAST.3.sing qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ COMP kʼoj POS.active naqʼ 3.sing.OBJ qʰuː꜒t͡sʼ want sqʷiː꜖q often to PAST.3.sing qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ COMP kʼoj POS.active naqʼ 3.sing.OBJ qʰu꜖t͡ʃ think qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ COMP pus NEG.active naqʼ 3.sing.OBJ qʷi꜖kʼ be siːʔ PRES.2.sing “Are you not one of those who thought that she often wanted to have a little lamb?” | (15) |
Compounding
Verbs
Inflectional Categories
The verbal phrase clitics in Makh fall into two categories, proclitics and enclitics: first, a clitic expressing obj, comprising djhan /t͡ʃʰan/ ‘1incl.sing’, qwe’ /qʰʷeʔ/ ‘1excl.sing’, kaj /kʰaj/ ‘2.sing’, nagq /naqʼ/ ‘3.sing’, quhad /kʰʷat/ ‘1incl.plur’, gqon /qʼon/ ‘1excl.plur’, mig /mik/ ‘2.plur’ and tid /tʰit/ ‘3.plur’; second, a clitic expressing negation.voice, comprising bus /pus/ ‘NEG.active’, dtiigq /tʼiːqʼ/ ‘NEG.passive’, gkoj /kʼoj/ ‘POS.active’ and gkan /kʼan/ ‘POS.passive’; third, a clitic expressing mode, comprising kugk /kʰukʼ/ ‘imperative’, tih /tʰih/ ‘conditional’ and quon /kʷon/ ‘optative’; and finally, fourth, a clitic expressing ta.subj, comprising dtochʼ /tʼot͡ʃʼ/ ‘PRES.1incl.sing’, dtaaq /tʼaːq/ ‘PRES.1excl.sing’, sii’ /siːʔ/ ‘PRES.2.sing’, guj /kuj/ ‘PRES.3.sing’, datz /tat͡s/ ‘PRES.1incl.plur’, tzʼiid /t͡sʼiːt/ ‘PRES.1excl.plur’, juuchʼ /juːt͡ʃʼ/ ‘PRES.2.plur’, bom /pom/ ‘PRES.3.plur’, ditzʼ /tit͡sʼ/ ‘PAST.1incl.sing’, qiikh /qʰiːx/ ‘PAST.1excl.sing’, djhes /t͡ʃʰes/ ‘PAST.2.sing’, do /to/ ‘PAST.3.sing’, quj /quj/ ‘PAST.1incl.plur’, qetzʼ /qʰet͡sʼ/ ‘PAST.1excl.plur’, tzhedj /t͡sʰet͡ʃ/ ‘PAST.2.plur’ and bej /pej/ ‘PAST.3.plur’.
The verb itself does not have any prefixes or suffixes attached to it.
The verb displays the following derivational morphology: 19 prefixes, namely qwe- /qʰʷe-/ ‘begin’, gqui- /kʼʷi-/ ‘stop’, ta- /tʰa-/ ‘continue’, ge- /ke-/ ‘try’, huu- /huː-/ ‘start’, ’i- /ʔi-/ ‘want’, wu- /wu-/ ‘can’, qho- /χo-/ ‘finish’, ne- /ne-/ ‘need’, gquaa- /kʼʷaː-/ ‘decide’, so- /so-/ ‘fail’, tzʼii- /t͡sʼiː-/ ‘hope’, dtaa- /tʼaː-/ ‘must’, gku- /kʼu-/ ‘pretend’, qo- /qo-/ ‘let’, gka- /kʼa-/ ‘force’, qhe- /χe-/ ‘keep’, shaa- /ʃaː-/ ‘cause’ and khwe- /xʷe-/ ‘allow’
Gkoj kaj jaa̠h dtaaq. [kʼoj kʰaj jaː꜖h tʼaːq] kʼoj POS.active kʰaj 2.sing.OBJ jaː꜖h love tʼaːq PRES.1excl.sing “I love you.” | (16) |
Adverbs Minor Classes
Adpositions
There is one type of clitic in the adpositional phrase, namely an enclitic (placed finally), expressing root.
go̠quheg go̠muqh tzhām [ko꜖kʰʷek ko꜖muχ t͡sʰa꜒m] k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜖kʰʷek table k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜖muχ surface t͡sʰa꜒m in “on the table” | (17) |
go̠gqui’ukh gōgigk sbuu̠s [ko꜖kʼʷiʔux ko꜒kikʼ spuː꜖s] k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜖kʼʷiʔux box k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜒kikʼ inside spuː꜖s to “into the box” | (18) |
wi̠w sdeqe̠g [wi꜖w steqe꜖k] wi꜖w 1excl.sing steqe꜖k COMIT “with me” | (19) |
Syntax
Basic Clause Structure
Constituent Order
Constituent order describes the typical arrangement of the subject (S), verb (V) and object (O) in simple declarative clauses. It is a fundamental parameter in grammatical description and forms one of the clearest ways of characterising the overall structure of a language’s clause system.
Makh has basic Subject–Object–Verb (SOV) word order. The subject precedes the object, and the verb appears at the end of the clause. This is one of the most frequent patterns cross-linguistically.
The following examples illustrate the basic, unmarked, constituent order in Makh.
Tzʼo̠qiiweqh gōdjhaanon gkoj nagq tzhe̠sh do. [t͡sʼo꜖qiːweχ ko꜒t͡ʃʰaːnon kʼoj naqʼ t͡sʰe꜖ʃ to] t͡sʼ- ERG o- no.owner.POSS ꜖qiːweχ jaguar k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜒t͡ʃʰaːnon hunter kʼoj POS.active naqʼ 3.sing.OBJ t͡sʰe꜖ʃ kill to PAST.3.sing “The jaguar killed the hunter.” | (20) |
Tzʼo̠buqwon gōdjhaanon geēsbagq gee̠sab gkoj nagq hētzʼ do. [t͡sʼo꜖puqʰʷon ko꜒t͡ʃʰaːnon keː꜒spaqʼ keː꜖sap kʼoj naqʼ he꜒t͡sʼ to] t͡sʼ- ERG o- no.owner.POSS ꜖puqʰʷon lion k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜒t͡ʃʰaːnon hunter k- ABS eː- 3.sing.POSS ꜒spaqʼ daughter k- ABS eː- 3.sing.POSS ꜖sap dog kʼoj POS.active naqʼ 3.sing.OBJ he꜒t͡sʼ eat to PAST.3.sing “The lion ate the hunter’s daughter’s dog.” | (21) |
The language has a fixed constituent order, and major phrases normally appear in a predictable position in the clause. Movement for discourse reasons is highly restricted: topics and foci are expressed not by rearranging elements, but through dedicated constructions such as clefts, focus clauses or topic–comment frames. Constituents remain continuous, and both the relative order of phrases and the internal structure of each phrase are stable. As a result, significant deviations from the basic word order are ungrammatical, and discourse structure is managed through these specialised constructions rather than through word-order variation.
Noun Phrases
Structure and Order
The internal structure of noun phrases in Makh reveals typologically significant preferences in the ordering of nominal constituents. This includes the position of adjectives, numerals, and possessors relative to the noun, each of which can offer clues to the overall headedness of the language.
Possessive constructions are head-final: the possessor precedes the possessed noun. For example, Makh expresses “the child’s toy” with the equivalent of “child toy”. This ordering is found in many SOV and postpositional languages and aligns with a broader tendency towards modifier-first structures.
gaākij geēgquin geebuug [kaː꜒kʰij keː꜒kʼʷin keːpuːk] k- ABS aː- 2.sing.POSS ꜒kʰij son k- ABS eː- 3.sing.POSS ꜒kʼʷin friend k- ABS eː- 3.sing.POSS puːk book “your son’s friend’s book” | (22) |
Case Marking
Makh uses ergative–absolutive case marking. The subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb are treated alike and take the absolutive case, while the subject of a transitive verb is marked with the ergative case. From the point of view of such a system, this is a perfectly natural way to organise the clause: the absolutive marks the participant most directly involved in the event or state, while the ergative marks the additional participant that causes or controls a transitive event.
Go̠quiq gkoj sdām guj. [ko꜖kʷiq kʼoj sta꜒m kuj] k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜖kʷiq cat kʼoj POS.active sta꜒m sleep kuj PRES.3.sing “The cat is sleeping.” | (23) |
Go̠quiq tzēm guj. [ko꜖kʷiq t͡se꜒m kuj] k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜖kʷiq cat t͡se꜒m run kuj PRES.3.sing “The cat is running.” | (24) |
Go̠quiq dāchʼitzhuqh guj. [ko꜖kʷiq ta꜒t͡ʃʼit͡sʰuχ kuj] k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜖kʷiq cat ta- chase ꜒t͡ʃʼit͡sʰuχ mouse kuj PRES.3.sing “The cat is chasing the mouse.” | (25) |
Tzʼo̠quiq gōchʼitzhuqh gkoj nagq dtii̠m do. [t͡sʼo꜖kʷiq ko꜒t͡ʃʼit͡sʰuχ kʼoj naqʼ tʼiː꜖m to] t͡sʼ- ERG o- no.owner.POSS ꜖kʷiq cat k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜒t͡ʃʼit͡sʰuχ mouse kʼoj POS.active naqʼ 3.sing.OBJ tʼiː꜖m catch to PAST.3.sing “The cat caught the mouse.” | (26) |
Conjunctions
Here is an example of a conjunction.
Tzʼōdjhaanon go̠qiiweqh shquōkh gōchʼotaw shquōkh go̠buqwon gkoj tid tzhe̠sh do. [t͡sʼo꜒t͡ʃʰaːnon ko꜖qiːweχ ʃkʷo꜒x ko꜒t͡ʃʼotʰaw ʃkʷo꜒x ko꜖puqʰʷon kʼoj tʰit t͡sʰe꜖ʃ to] t͡sʼ- ERG o- no.owner.POSS ꜒t͡ʃʰaːnon hunter k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜖qiːweχ jaguar ʃkʷo꜒x and k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜒t͡ʃʼotʰaw tiger ʃkʷo꜒x and k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜖puqʰʷon lion kʼoj POS.active tʰit 3.plur.OBJ t͡sʰe꜖ʃ kill to PAST.3.sing “The hunter killed the jaguars, the tigers and the lions.” | (27) |
Modifiers and Determiners
The ordering of demonstratives, articles (if present), and other modifiers in Makh provides further insight into the structure of the noun phrase. These elements frequently exhibit fixed positions and may reveal whether the language favours head-initial or head-final patterns.
Complex Sentences
Relative Clauses
Makh forms relative clauses by placing them before the noun they modify. The modifier takes the form of a finite clause that precedes the head noun without any relative pronoun. The clause shows ordinary clausal structure, with the role of the head noun recoverable from the syntactic position inside the clause.
To illustrate how relative clauses work, let us begin with a simple sentence:
Go̠quiq gkoj nagq kigqi̠q qiikh. [ko꜖kʷiq kʼoj naqʼ kʰiqʼi꜖q qʰiːx] k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜖kʷiq cat kʼoj POS.active naqʼ 3.sing.OBJ kʰiqʼi꜖q pat qʰiːx PAST.1excl.sing “I patted the cat.” | (28) |
We can now add a relative clause modifying the noun:
Gōchʼitzhuqh gkoj nagq dtii̠m gqwoqii̠tzʼ go̠quiq gkoj nagq kigqi̠q qiikh. [ko꜒t͡ʃʼit͡sʰuχ kʼoj naqʼ tʼiː꜖m qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ ko꜖kʷiq kʼoj naqʼ kʰiqʼi꜖q qʰiːx] k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜒t͡ʃʼit͡sʰuχ mouse kʼoj POS.active naqʼ 3.sing.OBJ tʼiː꜖m catch qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ COMP k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜖kʷiq cat kʼoj POS.active naqʼ 3.sing.OBJ kʰiqʼi꜖q pat qʰiːx PAST.1excl.sing “I patted the cat that caught the mouse.” | (29) |
Relative clauses may themselves contain other relative clauses:
Gkoj ’ūmotziim gqwoqii̠tzʼ gōchʼitzhuqh gkoj nagq dtii̠m gqwoqii̠tzʼ go̠quiq gkoj nagq kigqi̠q qiikh. [kʼoj ʔu꜒mot͡siːm qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ ko꜒t͡ʃʼit͡sʰuχ kʼoj naqʼ tʼiː꜖m qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ ko꜖kʷiq kʼoj naqʼ kʰiqʼi꜖q qʰiːx] kʼoj POS.active ʔu- eat ꜒mot͡siːm cheese qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ COMP k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜒t͡ʃʼit͡sʰuχ mouse kʼoj POS.active naqʼ 3.sing.OBJ tʼiː꜖m catch qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ COMP k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜖kʷiq cat kʼoj POS.active naqʼ 3.sing.OBJ kʰiqʼi꜖q pat qʰiːx PAST.1excl.sing “I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese.” | (30) |
Finally, here is an example containing several layers of embedding:
Wi̠w gkoj gqui̠chʼ qiikh gqwoqii̠tzʼ gōmotziim gkoj qwe’ hētzʼ gqwoqii̠tzʼ gōchʼitzhuqh gkoj nagq dtii̠m gqwoqii̠tzʼ go̠quiq gkoj nagq kigqi̠q qiikh. [wi꜖w kʼoj kʼʷi꜖t͡ʃʼ qʰiːx qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ ko꜒mot͡siːm kʼoj qʰʷeʔ he꜒t͡sʼ qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ ko꜒t͡ʃʼit͡sʰuχ kʼoj naqʼ tʼiː꜖m qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ ko꜖kʷiq kʼoj naqʼ kʰiqʼi꜖q qʰiːx] wi꜖w 1excl.sing kʼoj POS.active kʼʷi꜖t͡ʃʼ buy qʰiːx PAST.1excl.sing qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ COMP k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜒mot͡siːm cheese kʼoj POS.active qʰʷeʔ 1excl.sing.OBJ he꜒t͡sʼ eat qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ COMP k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜒t͡ʃʼit͡sʰuχ mouse kʼoj POS.active naqʼ 3.sing.OBJ tʼiː꜖m catch qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ COMP k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜖kʷiq cat kʼoj POS.active naqʼ 3.sing.OBJ kʰiqʼi꜖q pat qʰiːx PAST.1excl.sing “I patted the cat that caught the mouse that ate the cheese that I bought.” | (31) |
Complementation Strategies
Makh introduces complement clauses with a dedicated complementiser, similar to English that. The complementiser appears at the beginning of the embedded clause and signals that the clause functions as a syntactic argument. The embedded clause is fully finite and displays the same tense, aspect and agreement patterns as independent clauses.
The following example illustrate how complement clauses function:
Tzʼo̠buuw so̠sgeh go̠gquodadt gkoj nagq nīd do gqwoqii̠tzʼ sohiidjeej gkoj shdidta̠n do. [t͡sʼo꜖puːw so꜖skeh ko꜖kʼʷotatʼ kʼoj naqʼ ni꜒t to qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ sohiːt͡ʃeːj kʼoj ʃtitʼa꜖n to] t͡sʼ- ERG o- no.owner.POSS ꜖puːw boy s- DAT o- no.owner.POSS ꜖skeh girl k- ABS o- no.owner.POSS ꜖kʼʷotatʼ apple kʼoj POS.active naqʼ 3.sing.OBJ ni꜒t give to PAST.3.sing qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ COMP s- DAT o- no.owner.POSS hiːt͡ʃeːj teacher kʼoj POS.active ʃtitʼa꜖n surprise to PAST.3.sing “It surprised the teacher that the boy had given the girl an apple.” | (32) |
Quotes
Makh employs a quotative particle to mark direct and indirect speech. The quotative follows the reported phrase and identifies the preceding expression as quoted or reported. The same construction is also used to express reported thoughts.
Here is an example of how quotations are expressed:
Tzʼo̠buuw so̠sgeh wi̠w djhīm gkoj kaj jaa̠h dtaaq gqwoqii̠tzʼ gkoj qwe’ shbu̠’ do. [t͡sʼo꜖puːw so꜖skeh wi꜖w t͡ʃʰi꜒m kʼoj kʰaj jaː꜖h tʼaːq qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ kʼoj qʰʷeʔ ʃpu꜖ʔ to] t͡sʼ- ERG o- no.owner.POSS ꜖puːw boy s- DAT o- no.owner.POSS ꜖skeh girl wi꜖w 1excl.sing t͡ʃʰi꜒m 2.sing kʼoj POS.active kʰaj 2.sing.OBJ jaː꜖h love tʼaːq PRES.1excl.sing qʼʷoqʰiː꜖t͡sʼ COMP kʼoj POS.active qʰʷeʔ 1excl.sing.OBJ ʃpu꜖ʔ tell to PAST.3.sing “The boy told the girl that he loved her.” | (33) |
How to cite this grammar
Language Creator. 2026. A Grammar of Makh. Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.93, on 4 November 2026. https://languagecreator.org/grammar/6KQNY
In BibTeX format:
@misc{LC-6KQNY,
year = 2026,
author = {{Language Creator}},
title = {A Grammar of {Makh}},
howpublished = {\url{https://languagecreator.org/grammar/6KQNY}},
note = {Generated by the Language Creator, version 0.93, on 4 November 2026}
}
Supplementary Materials
A collection of illustrative texts and a bilingual dictionary (English–Makh / Makh–English) accompany this grammar. The complete work – comprising the grammar, dictionary and texts – may also be downloaded in ODT or DOCX format.
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